Land Law and Criminal Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Land Law and Criminal Law - Essay Example The principle of overriding interests was introduced to assist those whose interests would not reasonably expect to be registered. This includes things such as short term leases, legal easements1, as well as squatter’s rights and the rights of persons in actual occupation2. Overriding interests are covered under s70 of the Land Registration Act 1925, which has now been replaced by the Land Registration Act 2002. Overriding interests are now dealt with under sch 1 and 2 of the 2002 Act. The case of Williams & Glyn Bank v Boland was one of the first cases to adopt this principle. In this case a wife was able to claim an overriding interest in the property on the basis that she had made a substantial contribution to the purchase and was in actual occupation. This shows that in some cases the courts have regarded the actual occupation of the applicant to be treated as an overriding interest3. In situations where a person is in actual occupation and can demonstrate an interest in that property the court are unlikely to interfere with their right to remain in the property. Any attempt to do so would entitle that person to apply for proprietary estoppel on the basis of their contribution to the property4. Proprietary estoppel was established in the cases of Willmott v Barber (1880) 16 Ch D and Ramsden v Dyson (1866) LR 1 HL 129 where five essential elements were highlighted that had to be satisfied before a legal owner would be prevented from asserting his legal rights. These five elements consisted of the plaintiff having expended some money or having done some act on the faith of their mistaken belief that they would acquire an interest in the land5; they must have made some mistake as to their legal rights; the defendant must know of the existence of his own right which is inconsistent with the plaintiffs rights; the defendant must be aware of the plaintiffs mistaken belief of his rights; and lastly the defendant must have encouraged the

Open Method of Coordination Essay Example for Free

Open Method of Coordination Essay 1. Introduction: This paper aims to offer an assessment of OMC performance in relation to its goals and methods. A determination therefore will be made on whether OMC goals are met and what obstacles have been met in attaining said goals. In order to attain this purpose, we will define the Open Method of Coordination (OMC), find its goals and reasons why it was introduced into EU policymaking, followed by a brief overview in academic literature. Secondly, we will analyse the concept of social inclusion/exclusion (according to Atkinson). Thirdly, we will analyse whether OMC’s social inclusion made any improvement since Lisbon through the National Actions Plans and any other possible base. 2. Analysis and discussion 2.1 Define the Open Method of Coordination (OMC) its goals and reasons why it was introduced into EU policymaking.   What is OMC’s overview in academic literature? Summit at Lisbon in March 2000 Hughes, K. (2001) said that at the DOT.COM Summit at Lisbon in March 2000, the EU set itself the strategic goal of creating full employment in a competitive and inclusive knowledge-based economy. The author stated that to reach this goal, EU prime ministers announced the adoption of a new open method of co-ordination, which is based on benchmarking and spreading best practice. Such method the author said is really intended to help member-states converge towards common objectives in areas such as employment, economic reform and social cohesion. The objective of full employment (Grubel, 1977) will always be an objective of every right-thinking state for the fulfilment of which guaranties peace and security among citizens. The four stages of OMC as described by Hughes, K. (2001) includes the following: First, EU ministers agree on policy goals in the area concerned.   Second, member-states translate these guidelines into national and regional policies, with specific targets.   Third, the ministers agree on benchmarks and indicators, to measure and compare best practice within the EU and worldwide.   Finally, through evaluation and monitoring, member-states performances are assessed relative to each other and to their declared goals. Hughes, K. (2001) also posited that advocates of this soft (i.e. not law-based) approach argue that it enables member-states to co-operate closely, yet recognizes their diversity and avoids forced harmonization. The author also opined that the approach allows co-coordinated action in areas where it would be politically difficult, or even impossible, to move forward through a common policy or legal framework.   In addition, the author said that it allows for a concerted EU approach while leaving legal competence and authority with the individual member-states.   Thus, Hughes, K. (2001) concluded that progress can be made through open co-ordination where otherwise there would be none. To balance the claim of OMC, Hughes, K. (2001) noted the fear of the critics, who believe that open co-ordination is at best a talking-shop and at worst a weapon aimed at the traditional Community method of European integration. Thus the author said: â€Å"They view the new approach as a Trojan horse for more inter-governmental decision-making. Whether they are right will become apparent as the targets of the Lisbon summit are met or not over the next few years. The more difficult question is whether it is indeed another tool for integration, or rather a move towards increased, and perhaps less effective, inter-governmentalism.† To produce a set of common but not legally-binding, objectives for tackling poverty and exclusion would seem to be an useless exercise since everything would be based on voluntary decision of the members since whatever may be agreed upon are not legally binding. But this was what happened at Lisbon where the EU leaders suggested that open co-ordination should apply to areas such as social exclusion, enterprise and e-Europe, where most or all powers remain with the member-states. Hence, Hughes, K. (2001) noted that the member-states will produce national action plans for reaching these objectives, on which the Commission will then comment. OMC therefore seems to be a unique way of solving problems among members where the absence of legally binding rules will not hinder the members to act on what is beneficial to them. The members states must really have to rest on the strength of the political pledge to the development, on its professed worth and efficacy, and on peer pressure and public support. The European Economic Integration It would be incomplete to look at OMC if none is mentioned about European economic integration. Wikipedia (2006) acknowledged the fact that thee OMC was first applied in EU employment policy, as defined in the Amsterdam Treaty of 1997, although it was not called by this name at the time. It stated that OMC was officially named, defined and endorsed at the Lisbon Council for the realm of social policy and since then, Wikepedia (2006) said the approach has been applied in the European employment strategy, social inclusion, pensions, immigration, education and culture and asylum. Tsoukalis, L. (1997) in describing the process of European economic integration said: â€Å"It concentrates mainly, although not exclusively, on the more recent phase which started around the mid-1980s and which has been characterized by a continuous expansion of the European agenda, the strengthening of intra-European economic ties, the transfer of new powers to common institutions, as well as the geographical extension of what we may call the European economic system.   †¦.   The process of integration has always been characterized by fits and starts, by bursts of activity which have often been followed by crisis and relative inaction. In the early 1990s, the economic and political climate changed once again, the deterioration of the macroeconomic environment being accompanied by successive crises in the exchange markets and growing scepticism about the future of European integration. Unemployment rates reached dangerous heights, while economic growth receded. And the armies of unemployed began to seriously threaten Europes welfare systems. Yet the process of integration did not stop; far from it. And the plan for EMU has remained on the table with a treaty seal on it. The remaining years until 1999 are therefore most likely to be dominated by preparations for the historic rendezvous with the single currency, a rendezvous which, if it does take place as scheduled, some countries at least are bound to miss.† Tsoukalis, L. (1997) also said that during the same period, the EU has gone through two more rounds of enlargement, with the accession of five new members (without counting the accession of the Eastern Là ¤nder following Germanys unification). Mentioned by the author was also the fact EU has also gone through two major treaty revisions, linked to the internal market program and EMU respectively, while a third one is under negotiation as of 1997 then. The author argues that those developments show hardly any signs of withering away. On the other hand, the same author said that there is the allegedly unstoppable trend of economic globalization which, according to so many experts and laymen, leaves little room for public regulation and effective intervention, citing as examples Ohmae (1990), Hirst and Thompson (1996) and Boyer and Drache (1996). The author also posited that European integration has indeed evolved within the context of growing international economic interdependence, a term still often used instead of globalization by the less exuberant representatives of the economics profession. 2.3 Analysis of the concept of social inclusion/exclusion (according to Atkinson). OMC could not be discussed in isolation with social inclusion/exclusion, hence out understanding of the OMC necessitates us to look more on the concepts of social inclusion (Planning Portal, 2006) and social exclusion (Kerrycdb, n.d.). Atkinson, et. al. (2002) described the concept of social inclusion and exclusion as follows: â€Å"I know there is some scepticism about the open method of coordination given its character of soft law. Yet I am convinced that an effective open method of coordination in the field of social inclusion can play a crucial political role at this stage in European politics. It will create a common understanding of our core social values that goes beyond solemn declarations at the level of heads of state and government, and so should enable us to define in a more precise way the substance of the European Social Model. It has, then, the potential to be a powerful driver.† (Emphasis supplied). The optimism of the authors (Richardson, 1994) is readily evident.   In certain circumstances, a law may have power to demand compliance (Hutter, 1997) but one could hardly limit human freedom to choose (Hill, 1993) and decide for the themselves. On discussing Principles of Indicator Construction in relation to social inclusion/exclusion Atkinson, et. al. (2002) said:   â€Å"†¦ it is an important feature of this process that the policies to achieve social inclusion are the responsibility of member states, under the subsidiary principle. Social inclusion is to be promoted through the method of open coordination, as described above. Member states are to agree on the objectives of policy, but they will be free to choose the methods by which these objectives are realized. One member state may achieve low poverty rates by active labour market policy; another may place greater reliance on social transfers. In one member state transfers may be provided by the state, in another transfers may be private. In one member state training may be associated with apprenticeships; in another, it may be part of the school system. This we have taken to mean that, for the present purpose, the social performance indicators should in principle be concerned with outputs rather than inputs. The aim is to measure social outcomes, not the means by which they are achieved. †¦.† Readily evident is the fact that indicators social inclusion/exclusion be seen in outputs and inputs that Atkinson, et. al. (2002) went further saying: â€Å"While we regard total spending on education, for example, as a measure of the resources being put into education, and hence would prefer a measure of educational attainment, we recognize that the availability of teachers may be an index of educational opportunities. If our concerns are forward-looking, then we may take into account the possibility that one can benefit from a service in the future. Confidence in the future can be improved by the existence of services; they have an option value that is a form of current output. A sense of exclusion may be generated by the absence of educational or health facilities. A person may be over school age but still feel that the absence of a secondary school in his or her town is a factor in social exclusion.† (Emphasis supplied) On discussing Social Indicators from a Member State Perspective, Atkinson, and et. al. (2002) said: â€Å"For a valuable review of both European and national initiatives, predating the National Action Plans on Social Inclusion, readers are referred to Vranken et al. (2001).† The same authors also made comparison of the conceptual frame-works adopted in different countries, the databases employed, and the indicators used. After which they consolidated national reports on poverty and social exclusion that have been formed by official and academic researchers. Further, the same authors said: â€Å"Member states differ in the degree to which they have set explicit targets for combating social exclusion. In some cases there are strategies aimed at promoting social inclusion that already include explicit targets and indicators against which to measure the effectiveness of policy. Some countries, such as Ireland, have set a national objective for the reduction of financial poverty; others have adopted a set of progress indicators by which performance is to be evaluated; and still others monitor the trends in poverty and social exclusion in a less structured manner and without pre-commitment to identified targets.† Based on said premises the author opined that the amount of space allocated to each country varies. He was quick however to mention that in each case, however, a National Action Plan on Social Inclusion (NAPincl) was submitted to the Commission in June 2001 and that the NAPincls were requested to state the progress aimed for by national policies and to list the indicators used to assess progress, and the European Union is to move from that base towards commonly agreed and defined indicators.   (Paraphrasing made) 2.3 Did the OMC social inclusion made any improvement since Lisbon like through National Actions Plans? Although there are several members stated which have adopted jointly the OMC as strategy, what is cited in answer to the question is that one involving U.K. OMC social inclusion made any improvement since Lisbon on different occasions based in the following: a. On National Actions Plans European Commission, Employment Social Affairs, Social Inclusion (2006) on Implementation and update reports on 2003-2005 National Action Plans on Social Inclusion said: â€Å"The second UK NAP (2003-05) maintains the process of developing a broad and comprehensive strategy. Facilitating access to employment for those capable of working is at the centre of the strategic approach and has been helped by continued good economic and employment growth. The strategy also envisages the provision of good income support and high quality social services to those who cannot access work. Among the groups identified as requiring special support are: lone parents; the long-term unemployed; older people; those with few or no qualifications; ethnic minority communities; sick or disabled people; and residents of deprived neighbourhoods. The strategy involves commitment to a number of targets, supported by national indicators, most notably the aim of eradicating child poverty by 2020.†Ã‚   The Commission also noted that an important measure to help meet this target has been the provision of high-quality, integrated early-years education and health, family support and childcare services in the most disadvantaged areas. Hence, the Commission believes that these services will now be extended to cover all areas of England over the next ten years and it’s thus noted that the European Social Fund has a key role in support of the National Action Plan to help people develop their employability and skills, with a particular focus on unemployed and socially excluded people. b. On how open a member state to the process Armstrong, K. (2005) in concluding the paper â€Å"Implementing The Lisbon Strategy: â€Å"Policy Co-Ordination Through ‘Open’ Methods: How Open Is The United Kingdom To The OMC Process On Social Inclusion?† stated among other things, that his study has found examples of domestic adaptation to the OMC process on inclusion. He cited that these examples relate in particular to the mobilisation of anti-poverty networks and the willingness of central government civil servants to develop new working relationships with such networks. He thus mentioned that DWP and NGOs have joined forces to develop a participation tool-kit for the next round of NAPincls is an indication of a desire to break out of traditional bureaucratic routines and at least gives the appearance of a commitment to the NAPincls. The author further said that attitudes towards the NAPincls from the devolved administrations is more ambivalent, although the idea that the EU process might serve as a model for recasting the Northern Ireland anti-poverty strategy suggests a stronger adaptation dynamic at work here. Nevertheless, the author admitted the difficulty, that it is that it is hard to escape the conclusion that notwithstanding the elaboration of new processes, the UK NAPincl remains primarily a report and not a plan. He thus noted that to be sure, it has filled a gap between the central and devolved government social exclusion and anti-poverty reports and acts as an overview of the UK as a whole. The author also noted that the lack of synchronisation between the EU co-ordination processes and the domestic cycle of budget-planning and target-setting results in a reinforcement of the domestic arena as the key driver of social inclusion objectives, indicators and targets. This he believes undercuts the ability of the UK NAPincl to do more than report on what has already been agreed. (Paraphrasing made) Armstrong, K. (2005) also said that the research reported here also highlights two different political visions of the future of OMC. Particularly he noted the evidence of domestic adaptation – particularly at the level of central government – points to the importance of altering domestic mind-sets and routines in order to buttress commitments to political change. The alternative vision, however, the author observed is that is one that looks to EU institutions – in particular the European Council – to deliver high-level messages and to steer the Member States in the desired direction. He thus argued that it may not be a matter of choosing which vision to follow but the evidence of the Lisbon Strategy to date has been that there remains a gap between the big statements of political intention and delivery within the Member States. Thus he recommended that more needs to be done to uncover the domestic mechanisms of adaptation in order to explain the success or failures of the commitments made at Lisbon. (Paraphrasing made) Conclusion: There is evidence for a European to make a statement such as: â€Å"We are we a step closer to European Social Model and is the OMC the right approach.† OMC social inclusion made any improvement since Lisbon on the basis of the following: Although there is no legal compulsion to do things in OMC, there is evidence to say that voluntary actions do accomplish great things. Even in the absence of compelling force on the basis of legislation, people have goods reasons of accomplishing their political and economic purposes. The implementation of the OMC in the United Kingdom is one of the best proofs. Although more concrete proofs are still necessary to really declare that OMC will lead the members states to success, positive developments in the early implementation bears much goods results to further build upon. The power of humanity is not only manifested in having law to force them to move but also making them more willing effort to do things when they believe that right decisions just make many great things, and OMC is the one of these.

The clinical efficacy of salvia officinalis

The clinical efficacy of salvia officinalis An evaluation of the clinical efficacy of Salvia officinalis, Salvia lavandulaefolia and Melissa officinalis for the prophylaxis, management and amelioration of cognitive dysfunction: with particular reference to Alzheimers disease and non-Alzheimer-type senile dementias. 1. Introduction Dementia is a collection of symptoms caused by a chronic, global deterioration of cognitive function. It can occur at any age but is most prevalent in the elderly and increases with age (Beers et al. 2006: 1811). Around 5% of people over 65, 25% over 80 and 45% over 85 have some form of dementia (Knapp et al. 2007: 10; Collins 1997: 185). The population is aging and whereas today there is an estimated 700,000 people in the UK suffering from dementia, this number is set to increase to more than a million by 2025. The huge impact dementia has on society, devastating families and costing around  £17-18 million annually cannot be overstated (Knapp et al. 11). Early identification and safe, effective, intervention is therefore important. Dementia may be classified as Alzheimers or non-Alzheimer-types (Beers et al. 2006: 1811). The most common dementia is Alzheimers disease (AD) (Grossman et al. 2006: 985), affecting around 20 million people worldwide (Akhondzadeh et al. 2003: 53) and accounting for around 62% of dementias (Knapp et al. 2007: 11). Non-Alzheimer-type dementias typically affecting those over 60 include vascular dementia (27%), Lewy body dementia and fronto-temporal dementia (Knapp et al. 29). Cognitive disorders are treated allopathically with drugs that have yet to show real benefits and have a number of side-effects and contraindications. The need for safer, more effective treatments has led to increasing interest in the use of herbs for their management (Akhondzadeh and Abbasi 2006: 117). A variety of herbs, for example Salvia officinalis, Rosmarinus officinalis, Mellissa officinalis, Ginkgo biloba (Heinrich et al 2004: 234), Withania somnifera (Howes et al. 2003: 12), Centella asiatica (Chevallier 1996: 78) and Panax ginseng (Mantle et al. 2000: 207) have long-standing traditional use as memory-enhancing herbs. Consequently a number of clinical studies have been conducted to assess the efficacy of some of these herbs, most notably Ginkgo biloba, Salvia spp. and Mellissa officinalis, in the treatment of cognitive disorders. Of these, only clinical trials of Gingko biloba have been extensively reviewed (Birks and Grimley Evans 2002; Ernst et al. 1999; Oken et al. 1998). This present review aims to fill this gap by providing up-to-date information on whether clinical studies of Salvia spp. and Mellissa officinalis support their traditional use as cognition enhancers. To inform herbal practice it will evaluate clinical studies to assess whether the results have determined safe, effective herbal strategies and prescription for prophylaxis, management and amelioration of cognitive decline. 2. The literature review 2.1. Background: clinical presentation and pathology Although much scientific progress has been made since 1907 when Alois Alzheimer first described a case of dementia with â€Å"peculiar patches† disseminated throughout the cerebral cortex (Collins 1997: 185), there is still much to learn about the aetiology and pathogenesis of Alzheimers disease and other dementias (Knapp et al. 2007: 11). The onset of dementia is insidious, often beginning as mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and progressing to severe dementia over time (Loveman et al. 2006: 4). In the early stages, episodes of mild forgetfulness or misplacing possessions are often attributed to normal aging. Patients commonly suffer from anomic aplasia and agnosia but retain language comprehension (Collins 1997: 186). Dementia becomes more apparent when sufferers are unable to learn new information, to register the content of a conversation, or to recall recent events or the names of family members. Unlike those with benign forgetfulness, dementia patients are unaware of their amnesia. Frequently, there are mood changes, depression and other psychologic disturbances. Language comprehension fails (aphasia) and eventually patients may simply repeat what they hear or be unable to speak at all. Visuospacial deficits usually occur at a late stage (Collins 1997: 186). Those affected have difficulty in copy drawing simple obj ects. Differential diagnosis between MCI subtypes of various and complex aetiologies is challenging (Kidd 1999: 145). As some MCI subtypes are reversible (Levey et al. 2006: 992) prophylaxis for dementia could potentially encompass a range of varied or unknown aetiologies and risk factors. Knowledge of these and an awareness of differing clinical presentations are therefore important (Levey et al: 991). Additionally, an understanding of current orthodox treatment strategies and key neurochemical impairments in dementia can inform herbal practice of the most likely therapeutic actions of herbs. 2.1.1. Alzheimers disease As clinical studies have indicated that mild to moderate Alzheimers disease (AD) responds better to allopathic drugs than severe AD (Levey et al: 2006: 993), to prevent transition of MCI to AD early diagnosis is important. Evidence suggests that MCI associated with memory loss most commonly leads to AD (Levey et al. 991) and results of a clinicopathologic study of 80 subjects with MCI through to autopsy suggest that depression is one of the first features of AD (Galvin et al. 2005: 763). Formation of diffuse neuritic senile plaques in the brain is characteristic of AD but as these can only be determined from biopsy (Collins 1997: 186) probable diagnosis is made by clinical neuropsychological testing (Grossman et al. 2006: 986) such as the Mini Mental state Examination (MMSE) (Alzheimers Society 2002: 436), while magnetic resonance imaging can corroborate diagnosis by identifying areas of temporal neuronal loss (Vandenberghe and Tournay 2004: 347). Progression of AD is unremitting for around 5-10 years until death ensues. In the final stages sufferers may develop apraxia, with difficulty in performing familiar tasks. A common cause of death is pneumonia when patients eventual difficulty with eating results in aspiration pneumonia (Collins 1997: 186). The loss of faculties has been ascribed to both structural and neurochemical abnormalities (Perry et al. 1996: 1063). Senile plaques in the brains of AD patients contain amyloid and tau protein (microtubule associated protein) (Collins 1997: 188). Since isolation of b-amyloid peptide from cerebral vessels in AD patients (Wong et al. 1984: 8729), the accepted hypothesis for the pathogenesis of AD has been the ‘amyloid hypothesis, which proposes that AD is due to excessive formation of extracellular b-amyloid (Ab?) from amyloid precursor protein (APP), a membrane protein in neurons (Grossman et al. 2006: 986). It is thought that Ab molecules initiate a toxic cascade long before plaque forms by causing an inflammatory reaction, disrupting synaptic function and causing neurons to degenerate (Grossman et al. 986) with a loss of cholinergic fibres in the basal forebrain. In vitro results suggest that Ab enters mitochondria and induces free radical damage (Reddy 2006: 9). Intracellular neurofibrillary tangles are believed to be formed by abnormal phosphorylation of tau proteins (Tanzi and Bertram 200 5: 545), particularly in the hippocampus and neocortex, areas of the brain involved in memory (Mantle et al. 2000: 202). To date, thirteen genes have been implicated in AD (Bertram et al. 2007: 17). Of sporadic late onset Alzheimers up to 40% of cases may be due to a faulty gene on chromosome 21, ApoE4, an isoform of the ApoE gene that encodes for apolipoprotein, an astrocytic protein that may play a role in the reparative process in the brain. ApoE4s pathogenetic mechanism may be to enhance amyloid deposits within tissue by accelerating cleavage of b-peptide (Collins 1997: 189). Possession of a gene implicated in AD does not necessarily result in its development, the likelihood of which is further complicated by the potential role of environmental factors such as viruses and toxins in combination with genetic factors (Bird 2005: 864). 2.1.2. Vascular dementia Vascular dementia (VaD) is any type of dementia caused by cerebral blood vessel disease (Micieli 2006: S37). Onset of VaD is usually abrupt. Imaging may reveal areas of multiple infarcts (Collins 1997: 191) but their presence does not necessarily imply dementia (Grossman 2006: 987). According to Looi and Sachdev (1999) it is not possible to differentiate between AD and VaD with neuropsychological testing. Speech and language difficulties associated with vascular dementia may be mild or there may be a more pronounced aphasia as in multi-infarct VaD (Collins 1997: 191). 2.1.3. Frontal lobe dementia Frontal lobe dementia or Picks disease is uncommon and is characterised by neuronal loss and gliosis. Rarely, there are fibrillary inclusion bodies in the neurons. Presentation of frontal lobe dementia differs from AD in that the first symptoms are a change in personality rather than memory loss (Collins 1997: 193). 2.1.4. Lewy body dementias Dementia with Lewy bodies may differ to AD in its presentation in that patients suffer from marked visual hallucinations. Additionally, cognition tends to fluctuate between normality and confusion. Parkinsonian features such as shuffling gait, tremor, bradykinesia and rigidity are prevalent. Sleep behaviour disorder, such as acting out attacking themes, may appear years before other signs of the disease (Grossman et al. 2006: 989). 2.2. Risk factors Factors believed to pose a risk for developing dementia include cardiovascular disease, being female, a family history of dementia, Downs syndrome, older age, head trauma, diabetes and lower educational standards (Collins 1997: 186, 188; Lebson et al. 1997: 301). 2.2.1. Cardiovascular disease: Patients may have more than one type of dementia concurrently (Beers et al. 2006: 1811). This is compounded by results of a number of epidemiological studies suggesting that cardiovascular disease increases the risk of developing AD (Stampfer 2006: 12). Using transcranial Doppler ultrasonography Sun et al. (2007: 152) demonstrated diminished cerebral blood flow velocities in MCI patients who also carried the ApoeE4 allele. Risk factors for VaD are believed to include artherogenic factors such as hypertension, hyperlipidaemia, diabetes, and cigarette smoking (Micieli 2006: S38). Conversely, there are indications from clinical trials that nicotine has a protective effect for AD (Breteler et al. 1992: 71). Results of a randomised, double-blind, multicentred trial in which subjects with hypertension were treated with antihypertensives or placebo suggest that hypertension is a risk factor for developing both AD and VaD. Antihypertensives reduced risk by 55%. The results were significant as subjects had similar characteristics, the sample size was large (3228) and equally divided into placebo and treatment groups. Median follow-up was 3.9 years (Forette et al. 2002: 2047). 2.2.2. Head trauma: A meta-analysis by Fleminger et al. (2003: 858) replicated earlier findings by Mortimer et al. (1991) that head injuries pose a risk for AD but only in males, thought to be due to an early protective effect of oestrogens in females (Fleminger et al. 860). Bias may have been introduced into both studies as informants recalled the injuries. 2.2.3. Diabetes mellitus: Given that diabetes mellitus (DM) is a known risk factor for vascular disease it is not surprising that most studies on the development of vascular dementia in DM patients have shown a positive association (Biessels 2004: 10). Studies on DM as a risk factor for AD, however, have yielded conflicting results, possibly due to study limitations such as small sample sizes and selection bias (Leibson et al. 1997: 301). Large longitudinal studies may be more reliable. A population-based historical cohort study of 1,455 cases followed over 9,981 person years found a statistically significant positive association (Leibson et al. 304). According to results from the Framlingham Study, diabetes may not be an independent risk factor for developing AD but risk is strongly associated with possession of the ApoE4 genotype (Akomlafe et al. 2006: 1551). 2.2.4. Hormones: Women are twice more likely than men to suffer from AD. Although this may be partly due to women having a longer life expectancy (Beers et al. 2006: 1814) there is evidence to suggest that a decline in endogenous oestrogen in later life plays a role in its pathogenesis. Oestrogen is believed to stimulate cholinergic activity, reduce oxidative stress related cell damage, reduce vascular risks, reduce Ab formation and promote synaptic activity (Zandi et al. 2002: 2123; Hoskin et al. 2004: 141). Evidence from studies to determine whether oestrogen-containing hormone replacement therapy (HRT) in women has a protective effect on the brain, however, is conflicting (Colucci et al. 2006: 1376) but this may be due to differences in methodology and confounding factors (Resnick and Henderson 2002: 2171). For example, in one large prospective study that found a positive correlation between HRT use and a significant reduction in AD development, patients with dementia were asked q uestions regarding previous use of HRT (Zandi et al. 2124) yet accurate recall in a dementia sufferer cannot be guaranteed. Results of a retrospective case-control study suggesting the likelihood of women developing AD increases with number of pregnancies (Colucci et al. 2006: 1375) could be of little value. Cases with previous head injuries, low educational standards, both considered risk factors for AD (Collins 1997: 186; Fleminger et al. 2003: 858), and those who had used HRT, were not excluded from the study. There is evidence to suggest testosterone may delay AD onset in men. Men over 32 years of age who were free from AD at baseline (n = 574) were followed for a mean of nineteen years (Moffat et al. 2004: 188). Long-term free testosterone levels were significantly lower in men who developed AD. Due to conflicting results and confounding factors in the research the clinical evidence for risk factors for dementia is inconclusive. However, although more research is needed the results can assist in informing herbal practice. 2.3. Orthodox treatment strategies As cholinergic neurotransmitters are believed to have a role in memory function (Grossman et al. 2006: 985) symptomatic treatment for subtypes of dementia is similar and focuses on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition with drugs such as donepezil, rivastigmine and galantamine (Loveman et al. 2006: 8). According to Delagarza (2003: 1366) loss of cholinergic neurons causes a decrease in acetylcholine and subsequent drop in AChE with a compensatory rise in butylcholinesterase (BChE). Nicotinic receptors also decrease. Rivastigmine also inhibits BChE; galantamine also acts on nicotinic receptors. Depression in dementia is treated with non-anticholinergic antidepressants as anticholinergic drugs exacerbate symptoms (Beers et al. 2006: 1814). Another drug, memantine, a N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor antagonist (Grossman et al. 987), licensed to treat moderate to severe AD, acts by modulating the action of the neurotransmitter glutamate, which is believed to be associated with c holinergic damage and neurodegeneration when secreted in excess (Loveman et al. 2006: 8). Dizziness, diarrhoea, headaches, nausea and vomiting were found by a meta-analysis of dementia drugs to be common adverse events with anti-cholinesterases and memantine (Loveman et al. 2006: 49). Furthermore, their long-term benefits are inconclusive (Loveman et al. 145). Similarly, their use for vascular or Lewy body dementia is controversial as a review of clinical trials data deems there is insufficient evidence for their efficacy. Trials were of generally poor quality and with inconsistent findings (Maggini et al. 2006: 457). Other potential drugs for AD include 70 new compounds formulated to interfere with the toxic amyloid cascade or to target inflammation, oxidation or apoptosis (Grossman et al 2006: 987). As g-aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonists can impair memory GABA antagonists are also being developed (Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry). 2.4. Potential herbal treatment strategies In view of the hypothesised pathological sequelae, risk factors and current orthodox treatment of dementias, efficacious herbs for these conditions could potentially have one or more of AChE-inhibiting or cholinergic, antidepressant, hypotensive, hypoglycaemic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, GABA modulator, nicotinic agonist, testosterogenic and oestrogenic actions. According to Kennedy and Scholey (2006: 4614) orthodox AChE inhibitors are not well tolerated by patients as they are toxic alkaloids and European plants traditionally used for cognitive enhancement may therefore provide non-alkaloid safer alternatives. To this end Salvia officinalis, Salvia lavandulaefolia and Melissa officinalis, members of the Labiatae family (Lamiaceae), have been extensively investigated in vitro. 2.4.1. Salvia spp. Salvia is the largest genus in the Labiatae family with over 700 species. The most common European species are Salvia officinalis L (garden or common sage) (Figure 1) and Salvia lavandulaefolia Vahl (Spanish sage), both of which originate on the shores of the Mediterranean (Kennedy and Scholey 2006: 4614). S. officinalis is an aromatic, evergreen shrub up to 75 cm in height with greyish-green oblong to lanceolate opposite leaves covered in a fine down. It has bluish-violet, two-lipped flowers arranged in whorls (Wildwood 1998: 202). S. lavandulaefolia has narrower leaves and a lower spreading habit (Sergei Savelevs Database). Sage was used in medieval Europe as a tisane for prolonging life and is a traditional spring tonic for strengthening weak constitutions (Lipp 1996: 63). According to Culpepper (1826: 147) ‘Sage is of excellent use to help the memory, warming and quickening the senses and an old country remedy, which indicates its efficacy for inflammation: ‘A sunburnt face is eased by washing with sage tea (Page 1978: 41). Other traditional uses are for headaches and migraine (Page: 34). The major active constituents of the leaves of both species are believed to be the volatile oils (1.0-2.8%), containing monoterpenes such as a-pinene, b-pinene, 1-8-cineole, camphor, geraniol and thujone (Kennedy and Scholey 2006: 4615). S. officinalis contains around 50% a- and b- thujone whereas only traces have been found in S. lavandulaefolia. As thujone, a terpenoid ketone, is potentially neurotoxic, S. lavandulaefolia may provide a safer alternative than S. officinalis to orthodox dementia drugs (Perry et al. 1999: 530). However, S. officinalis is toxic only at doses of over 15 g (Grainger-Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 441) but the oil should not be ingested. Both species contain polyphenolic compounds including rosmarinic acid, methyl carnosate, luteolin, luteolin-7-0-glucoside and caffeic acid (Kennedy and Scholey 4615), triterpenes eg oleanic acid and the flavonoids 5-Methoxysalvagenin (Barnes et al. 2002: 408) and hispidulin (Johnston and Beart 2004: 809). 2.4.2. Melissa officinalis M. officinalis L (balm, lemon balm) (Figure 2) originates from the eastern Mediterranean region and western Asia and is now widely cultivated in the west (Grainger Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 329). It is a bushy perennial, about 60 cm high with bright green, lemon-scented leaves in opposite pairs. Small labiate flowers grow in whorls and change colour from pale yellow to white or pale blue. Fresh leaves should be collected when young (Wildwood 1998: 175). It has been in medicinal use as a nervous system restorative for over 2000 years (Kennedy and Scholey 2006: 4617). The London Dispensary (1696 cited in Grieve 1931) states: ‘An essence of Balm, given in Canary wine every morning will renew youth, strengthen the brain John Evelyn wrote: ‘Balm is sovereign for the brain, strengthening the memory and powerfully chasing away melancholy (cited in Grieve 1931). There are no known contraindications or adverse effects (Barnes et al. 2002: 339). M. officinalis contains 0.2-0.3% essential oil (EO) consisting of over 70 components including around 60% monoterpenoid aldehydes and over 35% sesquiterpenes. The principle monoterpenes include citronellol, neral, geranial, methyl citronellate, ocimene; major sesquiterpenes include b-caryophylene and germacrene D. The herb also contains flavonoids, caffeic and chlorogenic glycosides, polyphenolic acids such as rosmarinic acid, and triterpenes (Granger Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 330). 2.5. Possible mode of action of phytochemical constituents in dementia 2.5.1. Antioxidant properties Numerous studies have been conducted on Salvia officinalis in a search for natural antioxidants to use in the food industry. Consequently, results of chemical tests on purified extracts of the herb have suggested that phenolic compounds rosmarinic acid, carnosic acid, carnosol, carnosoic acid, rosmadiol, rosmanol, epirosmanol, isorosmanol, galdosol methyl carnosate, 9-erythrosmanol and luteolin-7-0-glucopyranoside have significant antioxidant activity (Bertelsen et al 1995: 1272; Cuvelier et al. 1994: 665; Pizzale et al. 2002: 1651; Miura et al. 2002: 1848; Wang et al. 1998: 4869). S. lavandulaefolia dried leaf extracts in ethanol, chloroform and water, and various EO monoterpenes were assayed for antioxidant properties in phospholipid microsomes. The extracts and monoterpenes a-pinene, b-pinene, 1-8-cineole, camphor and geraniol and thujone all showed significant antioxidant activity (Perry et al. 2001: 1351). The extracts showed greater antioxidant activity than any individual monoterpenes, which suggested a synergistic effect (Perry et al. 1352). Ferreira et al. (2006: 35) measured the antioxidant properties of EOs, decoctions and ethanolic extracts of M. officinalis and S. officinalis relative to b-carotene. The EO and decoctions of both herbs showed significant antioxidant activity. Lima et al (2007) found methanolic and aqueous extracts of S. officinalis prevented lipid peroxidation in hepatoma cells. As there were more phenolics in the methanol extract it was thought there were other antioxidant compounds in the aqueous extract. Ethanolic EO extract from dried M. officinalis investigated for its ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation in vitro showed a dose-dependent (10-20 mg) 80-90% protection of linoleic acid from peroxyl radical attack. As no rosmarinic acid was detected in the EO the antioxidant action was attributed to squalene (Marongiu et al. 2004: 790). Considering there are potentially 70 constituents in the EO it is unlikely that this would have been the only active phytochemical but composition of the oil varies according to harvesting, origin and climate (Grainger-Bissett and Wichtl 2001: 329). Interestingly, M. officinalis prepared as a tea demonstrated significant antioxidant capacity, which corresponded to high phenolic content, when assayed with the ABTS (2,2/-azinobis 3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radical decolourisation assay (Ivanova et al. 2005: 147). 2.5.2. Anti-inflammatory activity Chloroform, aqueous and ethanol extracts and monoterpenes of S. lavandulaefolia, were tested for their ability to inhibit formation of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids thromboxane B2 (TXB2) and leukotriene B4 (LTB4) in leucocytes (Perry et al. 2001: 1348). The chloroform and ethanol extracts showed significant inhibition of LTB4. Alpha-pinene and geraniol showed weak selectivity for LTB4 and TXB2 respectively (Perry et al. 1351). The results support the traditional use of S. lavandulaefolia as an anti-inflammatory herb but indicate that it is the sum of the whole plant phytochemicals acting in synergy that are likely to contribute to this action. A standardised ethanolic extract containing 9.9% rosmarinic acid (RA) from the leaves of S. officinalis reduced Ab-induced neuronal cell death, Ab-induced lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species formation, DNA fragmentation and tau protein hyperphosphorylation in vitro (Iuvone et al. 2006: 1143). Kimura et al (1987) found rosmarinic acid (RA) had the ability to inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokines in human polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMNs) in vitro. As both species contain RA these results suggest antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties of M. officinalis and the Salvia spp. against Ab-induced neurotoxicity. 2.5.3. Oestrogenic activity A range of concentrations of EO, ethanolic, chloroform and aqueous extracts and isolated monoterpenes of S. lavandulaefolia were assayed in yeast culture for oestrogen-binding properties. The EO showed weak oestrogenic activity at low concentrations. The aqueous and ethanolic fractions and geraniol showed significant oestrogenic activity (Perry et al. 2001: 1352). The results of this experiment support S. lavandulaefolias use as an oestrogenic herb. The effects of S. officinalis in combination with Medicago sativa were assessed on menopausal symptoms related to oestrogen deprivation. Hot flushes and night sweats were completely eliminated in 20 out of 30 women (De Leo et al. 1998: 207). These effects were attributed to dopaminergic actions but it is not clear for which herb. S. officinalis does, however, contain geraniol found to be oestrogenic in vitro (Perry et al. 2001: 1352). 2.5.4. Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity M. officinalis EO demonstrated strong AChE inhibition in homogenised human brain tissue but ethanolic extract of the dried leaf had no effect. Ethanolic fresh leaf extract showed a weak effect (Perry et al. 1996: 1064). Conversely, when EOs and ethanolic extracts of M. officinalis were assayed in solution with AChE negligible results were obtained for its inhibition by EO and significant results for its ethanolic extract (Ferreira et al. 2006: 34). Dried, reconstituted ethanolic, ethyl acetate or aqueous extracts of M. officinalis, yielding 10mg/ml, demonstrated weak AChE inhibitory activity when assayed in a chemical system using thin layer chromatography (Salah and Jà ¤ger 2005: 146). The herbs were purchased from local suppliers in the Lebanon so their quality is unknown. S. officinalis EO and ethanolic extract assayed in solution with AChE showed moderate AChE inhibitory activity (Ferreira et al. 2006: 34). Moderate (dose-dependent) AChE and weak BChE inhibition was demonstrated by ethanolic extracts of fresh and dried S. officinalis and S. lavandulaefolia in human brain homogenates. The EOs had significant effects but not the individual constituents (camphor, thujone, cineole, caffeic acid and borneol) (Perry et al. 1996: 1066). The findings suggest a major synergistic effect of the constituents (Perry et al. 2000: 895), which was later confirmed by Savelev et al. (2003: 667). The results for camphor conflict with another experiment in which S. lavandulaefolia EO and isolated monoterpenes a-pinene, 1-8-cineole and camphor demonstrated AChE inhibitory activity in human erythrocytes. Ethanolic extracts of dried S. officinalis, S. lavandulaefolia and M. officinalis were assayed for acetylcholine (ACh) receptor activity in human brain homogenate. All plants demonstrated ACh receptor activity and M. officinalis had the highest nicotinic displacement value (Wake et al. 2000: 108). 2.5.5. GABA modulation Methanol extract from S officinalis leaves revealed the flavonoids apigenin, hispidulin and cirsimaritin functioning as benzodiazepine receptor-active components (Kavvadias et al. 2003: 113), suggesting a potential calming effect for the herb, which may be relevant to AD. 2.6. Evaluation of in vitro studies According to the results all three herbs may have AChE inhibitory, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and S. lavandulaefolia and S. officinalis may have and oestrogenic properties (Appendix I, Table 1, page 36) and a sedative effect for S. officinalis. Although these results are interesting in vitro systems cannot be extrapolated to humans and clinical evidence is necessary to support findings. For example, they cannot determine effective human dosage or mode of administration. They largely do not account for potential synergistic effects of the herbs nor do they provide an indication of in vivo physiological, pathological and genetic, or environmental, influences. Furthermore, the extent to which phytochemicals in herbs are effective in dementia may depend upon their bioavailability in the brain (Anekonda and Reddy 2005: 371). It is worth noting, however, that as terpenoids tend to be lipophilic they are able to cross the blood brain barrier (Houghton and Howes 2005: 12). Some results are conflicting but they may depend on methodological quality and design. The experiments cited above vary widely in their approach with regard to extraction methods and assay methods. Savelev (2003: 667) has demonstrated how two different methods used for exploring interactions between the same agents may give different results when applied to the same set of data. Consistency of results may also be affected by differences in harvesting times and quality of herbs. Results for M. officinalis are particularly inconsistent but, according to Perry et al. (1996: 1068) most commercial sources of the EO are adulterated. Additionally, variation in media composition is known to affect the outcome of in vitro tests (Maurer and Kuschinsky 2006: 73). Consequently, in vitro experiments can only provide an indication of the clinical efficacy of therapeutic interventions. However, despite the inherent difficulties of in vitro research with herbs, there is considerable consistency with their potential value in dementia prophylaxis and management (Appendix I, Table I, page 36). Promising results in vitro of constituents of plants traditionally used to enhance memory, and subsequent interest in their potential actions in the brains of human patients, has generated clinical trials of M. officinalis and Salvia spp. for dementia. These will be reviewed. 3. Method A computerised literature search was conducted on the Allied and Complementary Medicine Database (AMED) including CINAHL Database, EMBASE, Pascal Biomed, Biological Abstracts, RCN Journals Database and IPA (International Pharmaceutical Abstracts); PubMed, the Cochrane Collaboration, Bandolier, the NHS Centre for Reviews, The National Research Register, ADEAR (Alzheimers Disease Education and Referral Centre database), PLoS (Public Library of Science), Herbalgram and Alt HealthWatch as well as hand-searching in books and journals. Literature searches dated back to 1985 and the final search was in April 2007. Key words in medical subject headings (MeSH) for an initial search in various Boolean combinations were: memory, cognitive dysfunction, dementia, Alzheimers, herbal, botanicals, phytotherapy, complementary and alternative. Also, in a second search these MeSh terms were entered with key herbs: Salvia, sage, Melissa and lemon balm. Inclusion criteria Controlled clinical trials, observational studies and case reports. Herbs for which there are at least two clinical studies in relation to cognitive enhancement. Exclusion criteria Due to the limitations and ethical considerations of animal experiments the review is restricted to human trials. Trials with combined preparations are excluded. Due to time constraints and a restriction to papers in the English language a complete systematic review is not viable at this time. To eliminate

Egoism in Crime and Punishment :: Crime Punishment Essays

Egoism in Crime and Punishment An egocentric attitude can be seen in Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment. Dostoyevsky's young Raskolnikov is staggeringly arrogant. Raskolnikov commits a murder and a failed robbery in the story. His journey in overcoming his ego can be seen through his initial crime, denial of failure, and acceptance of mistakes. Raskolnikov commits his initial crime out of arrogance. "The old hag is nothing.... I killed not a human being," he says. (245) Raskolnikov feels that he has justification for killing the pawn broker. He thinks that the woman has no reason to live. He believes that the woman is less than a human, and that he is a superior being. Raskolnikov thinks that he has a right to kill. After the botched crime Raskolnikov is plagued his failures. "He was conscious at the time that he had forgotten something that he ought not forget, and he tortured himself." (107) After he carelessly kills both women, and allows for the evidence to be found, Raskolnikov realizes he did not commit the perfect crime. This devastates his ego, so he tries to cling to his previous self perception. He is also plagued with feelings of guilt. His guilt, combined with the mistakes he made during the crime, shatter his self perception of perfection. When Raskolnikov surrenders he accepts his mistakes and rejects his self-centered attitude. "It was I who killed the old woman and her sister, Lizaveta, with an axe, and robbed them," Raskolnikov confesses. (476) With his surrender he not only accepts his methodical mistakes in the execution of the crime, but he sees something beyond himself. He begins to see the magnitude and horror of his act. He had taken a life. By realizing the immorality of his crime and rejecting his self glorifying mind set, Raskolnikov accepts his own humanity. In Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment, Raskolnikov's initial crime, failure, and acceptance of mistakes are his road to overcoming his ego, as well as self discovery.

Research Findings on Mid Day Meal Essay

Some research findings on Mid Day Meal Scheme conducted by independent agencies reported that MDM programme is a visible programme and has helped in increase in attendance and enrolment of children particularly girls. They also reported that there is an increase in retention, learning ability and achievement as well as greater social equity among caste, creed, sex and gender groups in the schools. The main research findings are as under: i) Research findings (2010) of Pratichi trust of Prof. Amartya Kumar Sen: Unlike many other Government programmes, implementation of MDM has been a success throughout the country. Though the quality of food needs to be improved, it must be said that with active participation of the beneficiaries, it has become a community programme. The quick response of the state administration in amending the shortcomings indicates that the administration is gradually becoming aware of this. ii) The major findings of the PROBE (Public Report on Basic Education) Report indicated that 84% of households reported that the children get cooked mid day meal in schools and children enjoy varied menu. Good practices like washing hands before eating, & after eating are imparted in the schools. Incentives like MDM have contributed to improving enrolment rates. iii) Mid Day Meal Scheme in Madhya Pradesh by National Institute of Public Cooperation & Child Development, Indore has reported that MDM has shown marked improvement in enrollment pattern of children in primary schools. Mid Day Meal Scheme undoubtedly resulted in increased school attendance and retention of children in schools for a longer period. The Scheme has played a crucial role in reducing drop out, especially among girls. Parents viewed that the mid day meal had reduced the burden of providing one time meal to  their children and considered it as a great support to their families. Teachers opined that mid day meal aided in active learning of children, which indirectly improved their academic performance. The Scheme has played a significant role in bringing social equity among all the sections of the society. iv) An empirical study conducted on Mid Day Meal scheme in Khurda district of Orissa, revealed that cooked mid day meal has increased socialization among the children and helped in increasing enrolment and afternoon session attendance. MDM has created new employment opportunities for underprivileged sections. v) Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) 2010 reported that in 83.4% schools served MDM on a day of visit and almost same percent of schools (81.3%) schools were having kitchen sheds for cooking mid day meal. A vastly improved availability of mid day meals had contributed to the increase in enrollment. vi) vii) 2. Supreme Court Commissioners undertake extensive review of various welfare schemes through field visits. They have observed that the MDM is widely acknowledged as one of the most successful schemes of GOI. Increase in enrollment and attendance of children in primary schools has been noticed after the introduction of MDM. Performance audit (2011) conducted by Centre for Environment and Food Security on food security schemes in Orissa and Uttar Pradesh; The sample survey in 130 villages spread over 12 districts of Orissa and Uttar Pradesh (Bundelkhand) was carried out and reported that performance of the MDM scheme is far better in Orissa in comparison with the Uttar Pradesh. An overwhelming 86.7 per cent of Orissa’s children were getting second best category of MDM (regular but inadequate and unsatisfactory meal), only 51.8 per cent of children in UP were getting regular but inadequate and unsatisfactory meal in their schools. Findings of Evaluation Study by Planning Commission Performance Evaluation of Cooked Mid Day Meal Scheme – study conducted by Programme Evaluation Organization of Planning Commission (2010): The highlights of the Study conducted by the Planning Commission are as under: i. The Cooked Mid Day Meal Program has been successful in addressing classroom hunger in sample schools. ii. Cooked Mid Day Meal is reported to have created a platform for children of all social and economic backgrounds to take meals together, thereby facilitating achieving the objective of social equity. iii. It has also been observed that the programme has resulted in the diversion of the attention of teachers and students on activities related to it, rather than towards teaching and learning activities, which results in loss of studies. iv. In general, visible shortage of basic infrastructural facilities and manpower (that are crucial for the success of the Cooked Mid Day Meal programme) were noted. v. Most of the states, it was observed, did not follow the guidelines of Government of India to deliver foodgrains at the school point by PDS dealer, thereby resulting in the leakage of foodgrains. There have been instances where due to long supply chain, foodgrains supplied got adulterated and pilfered. vi. While Cooked Mid-Day Meal Scheme seems to have contributed to an increase in the attendance in schools across the country, it does not seem to have any significant impact on fresh enrolments in sample schools. 3. Review of the Scheme by Supreme Court Commissioners Supreme Court Commissioners are monitoring all welfare Schemes of the Central Government including Mid Day Meal Scheme. They have monitored seven States viz. Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Nagaland, Orissa and West Bengal during 2010-11. The main recommendations of the reports are as under: i) Delay in release of funds to school / implementing agencies. ii) The mid day meal should be expected to cover all children in the school going age irrespective of whether they are enrolled in school. The location of meal served can continue to be the school; this might further encourage those out of school to join schools. iii) The provision for cooking costs under the mid day meal should be increased based on Price Index developed for Mid Day Meal Scheme to counter the effect of inflation. iv) Proper infrastructure for mid day meals should be mandatory, including cooking sheds storage space, drinking water, ventilation, utensils etc. v) Mobilization for kitchen garden in school premises should be encouraged. vi) Priority should be given to disadvantaged communities (especially Dalits and Adivasis) in the appointment of cooks and helpers. All cooks and helpers should be paid not less than statutory minimum wage. vii) Mid day meal should be linked with nutrition education and related educational activities. State Government should be encouraged to adept their text books for this purpose, as the NCERT has already done for some text books. viii) Nutritious items such as eggs and green vegetables should be provided regularly. ix) Serious action should be taken in the event of any form of social discrimination in mid day meal such as discrimination against dalit children or dalit cooks. x) Community participation in the monitoring of Mid day meal should be strengthened, particularly to prevent corruption and ensure quality. xi) Mid day meal should be integrated with school health services, including immunization, de-worming, growth monitoring, health checkups and micronutrient supplementation. xii) Grievance redressal mechanism must be within easily reachable distance of complainant and should therefore be decentralized to Panchayat level. It could also consist of mobile camps that reach out to each village. *********

Which Fields Have the Highest Paying Administrative Jobs

Which Fields Have the Highest Paying Administrative Jobs According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, administrative assistant jobs are projected to grow by 13.2 percent by 2022. This ever-changing job title comes with a variety of  duties and levels of responsibility, depending on the employer. Administrative professionals  are reportedly assuming more managerial tasks across the board, requiring more skills and knowledge than ever before.Fields that employ administrators are far-ranging- if youre looking for work in the field, you have many  options to consider. Salaries vary depending on the type of administration, experience, and education level.  Lets take a look at some of the most lucrative fields.Real Estate AdministratorAdministration in the real estate field may include recruiting, training and hiring of personnel. Management of the client database, generating leads, and doing follow-ups can also be part of the job description. Real estate administration duties can also include financial responsibilities:  making budget s, paying bills, and handling bank accounts.Working as a real estate administrator pays an average of $46,000 per year, depending  on your location and size of the agency.Legal Administrative AssistantThe Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that administrative support in the legal industry offers among the highest pay- and that can include overtime. While the average annual earnings are $48,000, the amount often increases due to  bonuses and profit sharing. In addition, medical and dental coverage are frequently provided.Youll need to have knowledge of legal terms and principles (as well as the ability to write correspondence and draft documents using these  terms) to be competitive in this niche.Business AdministratorBusiness administrators work in many fields and industries: sales, retail, hospitality, and  management operations are a few. Among other duties, a business administrator may oversee a companys budget and finances and analyze sales reports.Those with associate d egrees may earn  from $25,000 to $50,000 annually; a bachelors degree can bump the annual average salary  up to around $88,000.Academic AdministratorThis support job for teaching departments handles administrative  duties  along with tasks like  resource planning, scheduling, logistics, and project management. The average salary of an academic administrator is around $90,000 for elementary and secondary schools.Database AdministratorThis type of administrator organizes and stores data on special programs, such as   shipping records for customers or  financial information for institutions. To be a database administrator, you must  be able to install, upgrade, configure, and maintain an organizations databases. The average annual  pay of a database administrator is $78,500 per year.Financial AdministratorFinancial administrators, who carry  responsibility for budget information, accounts receivable and payable, and the preparation of financial reports, can work for a large number of different companies: from banks to schools and retail companies. Salary is dependent on the type and size of the company and the duties required.The average salary for this position is around $46,000, but may range between $32,000 and $66,000.When looking for a job, there are many things to consider, such as different fields of employment for which you may be qualified, particularly if you are pursuing a career as an administrator. TheJobNetwork can do your job searching for you by sending you alerts when a job matching your qualifications and interests comes up. The advantage of doing this type of job search is that you are notified right away when appropriate jobs arise, instead of having to perform the search yourself. Once you enter your job interests and qualifications, you can be alerted or you can perform searches yourself to find the perfect job for you.

Relationship Between Law of Demand and Supply and National Minimum Wage The WritePass Journal

Relationship Between Law of Demand and Supply and National Minimum Wage Introduction Relationship Between Law of Demand and Supply and National Minimum Wage IntroductionThe Law of DemandThe Law of SupplyEquilibriumNational Minimum WagesHistory – UK’s Minimum WagesMain principles to highlight the ‘National Minimum Wages’:Arguments in favour of ‘National Minimum Wages’Potential Economic and Social BenefitsHigher tax revenuesReduction in labour turnover  References:-Related Introduction Supply and demand are one of the basic models of economics and they are main characters of a financial system. Demand means how much quantity of the service or product customer is willing to buy. At constant factors, price of the product increases or decreases as its demand increases or decreases respectively. While supply means the quantity of services or goods, producers willing to supply to consumer at certain price. At constant factors, quantity of products supplied increases as price of the product increased. The Law of Demand According to the ‘Law of Demand’, â€Å"Higher the price of the product results in less demand as less people wants to buy it, at the constant factors.† Graphically we can present the Law of Demand as below, In figure 1, A, B and C are points on the demand curve. Every point on the curve shows a direct relationship between amounts of the products demanded (Q) and price (P). So, at point A, the quantity demand will be Q1 and the price will be P1, and so on. The demand relationship curve shows the negative relationship between price and quantity demanded. The higher the price of a good the lower the quantity demanded (A), and the lower the price, the more  the good will be in demand  (C). The Law of Supply According to the ‘Law of Supply’, â€Å"Higher the price of the product results in high supply of the quantity of the product.†Ã‚   Because higher supply of the product at high price the revenue is maximum. Graphically we can present the Law of Supply as below, Figure 2: The Law of Supply In figure 2, A, B and C are points on the supply curve. Every point on the curve shows a direct relation between quantity supplied (Q) and price (P). At point B, the quantity supplied will be Q2 and the price will be P2, and so on. Equilibrium It is the point, at which quantity demanded and supply of the goods are same or equal. At equilibrium distribution of products is more effective because amount of the product supplied is exactly the same as the quantity of the product demanded. Graphically we can present the Equilibrium condition as below, Figure 3: Equilibrium At the point of intersection of the supply and demand curve equilibrium takes place. At this point, the price of the goods will be P* and the quantity will be Q*. This figure is referred to as equilibrium price and quantity. National Minimum Wages A minimum wage is the least monthly, daily or hourly that employers should pay legally to the employees. Workers in Britain were sheltered for the first time on the last nine months of 20th century by ‘National Minimum Wages’. With the intention of the recommendation to the rate of ‘National Minimum Wages’ in 1997 the ‘Low Pay Commission’ was established. Low Pay Commission is   a kind of social partnership made up of three employer representatives, three worker representatives and three independent members, whose suggestions have been always agreed and government has always executed the suggested National Minimum Wages. National Minimum Wages has been restructured seven times, since April 1999. History – UK’s Minimum Wages In 1909  wages had always been synchronized by borough, but in 1909 the ‘Liberal governments Trade Boards Act’  formed the first national system of wage law. The act made four’ Trade Boards’ that set minimum wages which were different in different industries. In 1945 after the war, the Trade Boards, which is now well-known as Wages Councils broaden their power. Previously only relevant to industries where communal bargaining was weak,  they were now broader in scope. In 1986  the Wage Council system had grown-up during the mid 20th century, in 1980s there were  26 councils, covering 2 million workforces, primarily in low paid jobs like trade. In 1986 the Conservative government decreases the influence of the councils and prevents new ones from being starting, with the Wages Act. In 1993  wage Councils are  eliminated, due to resistance from trade unions, who favoured to practice group bargaining. In 1998  Ã¢â‚¬ËœThe Labour government’  established ‘The National Minimum Wage Act’. Trade unions, which in 1979 had characterized 55% of the employees, had been able of bargaining wages by group bargaining.  But in 1999 less than one in four employees were unionised, and a national solution was projected. The policy is resisted by Conservatives. In 1999  Ã¢â‚¬ËœThe national minimum wage’ executed. ‘The Low Pay Commission’ judges the best rate to be  Ã‚ £3.60 an hour for labours who are 22 and above. In 2009  Conservative backbencher Christopher puts forward a private members bill that suggested allowing workers to  optimum output of the minimum wage In 2010  on 1st October 2010 the wages  increased  to  £5.93, and the age at which meet the criteria for the top rate becomes 21 for the first time. A minimum wage for apprentices is also established, at  £2.50 per hour. Main principles to highlight the ‘National Minimum Wages’: It must be â€Å"enough to permit labours to sustain in vigorous existence. Hence, the wage must be designed on what the employees need for physical health and competence, and not what the trade will stand†. The â€Å"law have to be national, that is it should apply to the entire country†. It is to be a â€Å"nationwide least of real wages that worked out in its cash comparable will balance all local disparity in cost of livelihood† Arguments in favour of ‘National Minimum Wages’ The primary aim of National Minimum Wages is to decrease poverty and decrease the differences in pay. Another intention of National Minimum Wages is to cut the misuse of low paid labours. Potential Economic and Social Benefits Higher tax revenues Due to increase in the wages of low salaried jobs ,income tax and national insurance contribution is increased. State benefits would cost less Benefits like income support and benefits in council tax will be required less. A reasonable distribution of income across the people The primary reason of poverty contributes to increasing crimes. Argument is able to provide the employees reasonable pay for their work. Increasing productivity of labour Firms will have an inducement to lift the  yield  of workforce if they pay the minimum wage. This will lead to better investment in the  human capital. Reduction in labour turnover   Increased salary can decrease the labour turnover and rate of absence and can lead to motivate the labours to work to improve efficiency and reducing the expenses on turnover of employees. Potential earnings from the ‘National Minimum Wages’ Figure 4: Potential earnings from the ‘National Minimum Wages’ The National Minimum Wages in the figure 4 is put over the standard free market wage rate for a given job. Total employment reduced from point E1 to point E2 (expressing a loss of income for those who lost the jobs). At point E2, there is an increase in the income of those who stay in work.    Arguments against of ‘National Minimum Wages’ Increase in marginal cost of employment A National Minimum Wages put higher than the free-market wage for certain groups lifts the marginal cost of employing workers. So organisations will reduce   jobs, cut down   the hours of work and unemployment will increase. Pay leap-frogging Other labours will demand more wages to maintain differentials in pay, which will result in cost-push inflation and adversely affect the competitiveness of UK producers in terms of price in international market. Increased unemployment Low-skilled labours and young persons will be replaced by experienced older labours resulting into increase in unemployment. Cost of training Some organisations will try to cut the cost on training of employees because of falling rate of profit. Distortionary effect A National Minimum Wages does not take into consideration local disparity in cost of living and will result in distortionary effect in   the UK labour market. The impact of a minimum wage on employment Figure 5: The impact of a minimum wage on demand and supply of labours The impact of a minimum wage on employment points depends in part on the ‘elasticity of demand’ and ‘elasticity of supply’ of employment in dissimilar businesses. If workforce demand is comparatively inelastic then the narrowing in employment will be less harsh than if employers demand for workers is elastic with respect to changes in the income level. Effect of the National Minimum Wage in Industries According to, a report of ‘The Confederation of British Industry, (CBI) which gave the capable support to the National Minimum Wage, some key issues were as given below: There are not much evidences showing major impact on employment or unemployment. There are no visible errors upwards in typical earnings. There are some impacts of the National Minimum Wage on wage differentials directing towards the higher rates for workers. But it is only applies to thirteen percents of organisations. Exemption of under eighteen year olds from any minimum wage has been proven as useful for employers. To balance the cost of the minimum wage, some organisations have adopted work practices by making staff multi- skilled in their job. References:- britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/156920/demand-curve britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/574671/supply-curve http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/1560/1/WRAP_Stewart_twerp630.pdf totalpolitics.com/blog/28013/history-of-the-uk-s-minimum-wage.thtml lowpay.gov.uk/lowpay/report/pdf/Revised_Report_PDF_with_April_date.PDF direct.gov.uk/en/Employment/Employees/TheNationalMinimumWage/DG_10027201 investopedia.com/university/economics/economics3.asp investopedia.com/terms/d/demand.asp investopedia.com/terms/s/supply.asp hmrc.gov.uk/paye/payroll/day-to-day/nmw.htm   http://tutor2u.net/economics/content/topics/poverty/minwage_for.htm http://tutor2u.net/economics/content/topics/poverty/minwage_against.htm

Operational Contexts essayEssay Writing Service

Operational Contexts essayEssay Writing Service Operational Contexts essay Operational Contexts essayIn actuality, the contemporary education system and approaches to teaching are vulnerable to severe criticism because of their imperfectness. Critics normally appeal to change the existing education system at all levels and place emphasis on changing in principal purposes of education and philosophy of education. In fact, such a view on the contemporary education implies radical change but effects of such changes are questionable. At any rate, it is unclear if educators broaden the scope of education and overcome existing limitations, it   will be still unclear where the modern education will move to and, more important, it will be still unclear whether the new education system may be more effective than existing one.In this regard, the shift toward the availability of education would be a more reasonable solution. Changing goals or philosophy of education is really important but the problem is that education cannot be changed, its goals and philosophy eff ectively, if a large part of the population has a limited access to education and cannot receive education of the high quality. the education of high quality means that students can learn successfully in accordance to the existing curriculum, even if it is not perfect.In such a situation, the immediate change of goals of education, educational philosophy and environment will make the education system even more complicated, whereas the effectiveness of the education will be still questionable. Whatever the education is, if it is unavailable for all people, such education will not have large scale effects on the society. Simply speaking, even the perfect education will not change the general level of education, if the majority of population remains illiterate or poorly educated.

The Influence of Deweys Philosophies in Modern Americas Education Research Paper

The Influence of Deweys Philosophies in Modern Americas Education - Research Paper Example This report declares that Dewey supported an interdisciplinary syllabus. This syllabus centered on linking many subjects and enabled students to enter and exit classrooms independently as they search for and pursue their interests and build their particular paths for gaining and applying knowledge. The teacher’s role in such a syllabus would be to act as an enabler more than an instructor. Dewey argued that the teacher’s role was to detect the interests of students, watch the directions they pursue naturally, and afterwards, act as an individual who assists in building problem-solving skills. This paper makes a conclusion that a teacher ought to convey context material information while students learn in groups. Conventionally, the classroom has been arranged with the teacher in front and students seated in rows. This model of classroom arrangements is practical in today’s education system and has been commonplace for decades. A teacher normally conveys information to a class, who then acquire and repeat it in a type of a written exam. In contrast, Dewey’s philosophy involves students learning in groups that were exploring various concepts under the teaching material. In Dewey’s education system, one would observe multiple dialogs a lot of cooperation. Although one might also observe a written exam, there may also be student assignments, slideshows, or other distinguished methods of assessment.

(Dear #2996) Essay in Philosophy class Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

(Dear #2996) in Philosophy class - Essay Example This short paper focuses for the main part on the subject of God in addition to the soul, rebirth and the more mundane affair of marriage. We also discuss points that would help to explain this situation that is peculiar to the Buddhist religion. In relation to mundane life, the noble Buddha did not delve extensively on the topic of marriage for example, so no rules were laid down dealing with married life although he did give some basic advice to ensure that people would lead happily married lives. Similarly, there are no direct references to related issues such as divorce or birth control. Nonetheless, worldly concerns were addressed but the focus was on liberation from suffering in this world and general guidance on how to live a good life. The most notable absences however, that one would expect to have been talked about by the founder of a religion, are the subjects of God and soul. A common fallacy is that buddhists deny the existence of both. Some would differ saying that by not proclaiming the existence of God, the noble Buddha in effect denied the existence of God, but even with this position, they cannot claim this with certainty for the very reason that no clear statement was made accepting the existence of God. At the same time, we could also argue that God does exist because there are sufficient records of noble Buddha discussing God in the Buddhist scriptures. In regard to the soul, the position of Buddhism is similar to Islam wherein God responded to a question concerning the soul; that people have only been given a little knowledge. The noble Buddha however was more strict in ensuring that his teachings were kept simple, and he did not intend to cause any confusion. In actual fact, the noble Buddha neither categorically denied God or the soul, nor did he affirm their existence. What the noble Buddha discouraged was speculating on such subjects on which one does not have proper knowledge. The noble Buddhas position was to either remain

Project Evaluation Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Project Evaluation - Assignment Example The document also summarises the theories and concepts learnt in the unit, how these theories influenced my work, example/case study of a successful IT project and its comparison with the developed database. Lastly, the document includes the impact of these lessons on my future work, and what I would do differently along with its rationale. Database of Local Recruitment Agency A local recruitment agency requested to have a database in order to store their business information and access the information in the form of reports. The agency deals with the information of customers (job applicants), jobs (currently available and archived) and tracks contact between customers. In order to fulfil the requirement of the agency, I have developed a database in Microsoft Access 2007. As mentioned in the (previous) assignment, the agency has the following requirements: i. A database to be developed in Microsoft Access that is able to store, retrieve and update the information regarding customers, jobs and track contacts between customers. ii. The agency should be able to add new customers, jobs and their information or details in the database through a form (separate for each) of MS database Access. iii. The agency wants several reports to be produced from the database; however, they specified only three reports that include the customer list; jobs list grouped by job type and the report showing contacts and track follow up. iv. The database tables should be populated with data of at-least 20 customers, 10 jobs and 20 contacts. To fulfil the requirements of the agency, I have developed a database in MS Access 2007 that has four tables, which include tblCustomer, tbljobs, tblContact, and tblJobType. The agency can store all the relevant information in these tables (requirement â€Å"i" fulfilled). I have developed three forms to add/update new customers and jobs along with their details (requirement â€Å"ii" fulfilled). I have developed three specified reports that show t he customer list, jobs list and contact group by the customer (requirement â€Å"iii" fulfilled). I have populated the database with required data in the respective table (requirement â€Å"iv" fulfilled). Features of a Smart Database The developed database should also be evaluated in terms of the characteristics of a high quality database as given below: Accuracy The database is considered accurate if the values stored in the fields of the database are correct. After developing, the database for the agency presumes that the information that is input into a database is faultless as well as accurate. Completeness The end user (agency) of the database has to be aware of the information to be provided to the developer(s) for the development of the database, as if they provide less or inaccurate information, the developed database would definitely be useless and inaccurate. In our case, the information of the customer has to be complete in every aspect, for example the customer profil e, education and experience etc. is missing in the developed database, which has not been asked by the agency. Consistency The consistency is as important as the accuracy and completeness of a database. As in our case, the database is considered to be consistent as we have stored the information/data of one item in a single field only. Uniqueness The data in one field must represent

Home Depot Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Home Depot - Essay Example the ability is to pay labor and get credit; the less the capital, and the less able an organization is to pay its employees and borrow money (Riesman, 2009). From this regard, it is possible that more personalized selling could be the solution to some of Home Depot’s problems. There is also the attention that needs to be paid to the customer, in terms of putting them first and giving a customer-centric experience. It is the assumption of the current research investigation that intensifying the focus on the customer, while still remaining cost-effective, may be the best course for the organization of Home Depot to take. This involves an expanded awareness of, and attention to, the customer, whose loyalty will be encouraged through the presentation of a clear plan that knows what the customer expects, what they are finding in the competition that they are not currently finding at Home Depot, and other customer-centered factors. More often than not, these factors are based on the perceptions of those who hire the product or service of a large home improvement chain, with certain expectations in mind about what they are getting (and not getting). Home Depot can possibly take advantage of reducing the amount of time a transaction is going to take a customer, centralizing control of this process, and expanding operations without actually building any more brick-and-mortar branches, perhaps even by improving the customer-centric nature of its web operations. In many ways, this can be viewed as a win-win outcome for Home Depot, but there is also the obstacle of initial costs in setting up new operations and getting the operation moving primarily in a place where it can be subjected to external over-regulation. There is also the abovementioned danger of changes in the external environment. In conclusion, there are various factors and outcomes which must be realized in the context of the Home Depot situation. One must think of the worst case scenario, cost

Shipping Jobs Overseas (How it affects United States Economy) Research Paper - 1

Shipping Jobs Overseas (How it affects United States Economy) - Research Paper Example Changes in the way in which organizations conduct business have been rapid and wide-spread as the concept of outsourcing has been introduced. It is the inherent nature of the marketplace to increase efficiency within the workplace by constantly striving to produce the most products with the least expenditure of resources. It is this concept that has driven many corporations to join in the globalization process, frequently outsourcing many of their activities and production processes to less developed countries in which this process is less expensive and requires fewer restrictions, licensing, and/or controls. â€Å"Global markets offer greater opportunity for people to tap into more and larger markets around the world. It means that they can have access to more capital flows, technology, cheaper imports and larger export markets† (International Monetary Fund Staff 2002). Although the idea of a global market and outsourcing sounds like an ideal situation for the increased flow of goods and currencies throughout the world, as well as a possible solution for the redistribution of wealth into some of the world’s most destitute countries, in practice, â€Å"globalization has meant that the governments of the advanced capitalist countries, along with the I.M.F., the World Bank, and the W.T.O., have increasingly sought to force other nations to adopt market economies, privatize public companies and resources, abandon labor and environmental regulations, reduce social services, and embrace ‘free trade’ and the free movement of transnational capital† (Smith 2002).

2500 words essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

2500 words - Essay Example A concert involves a live performance of music before a significant number of individuals also referred to as audience. Being held in various settings including private houses, nightclubs, entertainment centers, parks and concert halls among other places, concerts comes in different forms based on the musical genre, venue of performance and the individual performers. As an individual who is focused at improving my academic performance, I usually attend music concerts in various places in order to feel relaxed an aspect that improves my concentration. Additionally, I am focused at obtaining adequate information prior to attending the concerts. I usually obtain such information from the internet as well as bill boards that are in most cases elected in major towns and highways. This paper seeks to discuss my experience during my attendance of Rock in Rio 5 concert in September 2013. Rock in Rio is an event that originated from Brazil. Being held in series, the concerts attract large audience who come face to face with well known musicians from various countries. Rock in Rio 5 which is one of the series of Rock in Rio was held on 2013. Some of the notable musicians that participated in the concerts included Justin Timberlake, Beyonce, Bruce Springsteen, Muse and Bon Jovi among others. Having started in Friday 13 September in Brazil, the 7 days event brought together more that 1 million people from different parts of the world. During the first day, David Guetta, Beyonce and Ivete Sangalo did their presentations during the Palco Mundo an event that attracted large audience especially among the college and university students. Majority of the people who arrived at the concerts were attracted by the performance of the three artists who are famous locally and internationally. Based on the fact that a large section of the audience were aware of the songs that were sa ng by Beyonce, the audience was able to sing along with her an aspect that made

Home Depot Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Home Depot - Essay Example the ability is to pay labor and get credit; the less the capital, and the less able an organization is to pay its employees and borrow money (Riesman, 2009). From this regard, it is possible that more personalized selling could be the solution to some of Home Depot’s problems. There is also the attention that needs to be paid to the customer, in terms of putting them first and giving a customer-centric experience. It is the assumption of the current research investigation that intensifying the focus on the customer, while still remaining cost-effective, may be the best course for the organization of Home Depot to take. This involves an expanded awareness of, and attention to, the customer, whose loyalty will be encouraged through the presentation of a clear plan that knows what the customer expects, what they are finding in the competition that they are not currently finding at Home Depot, and other customer-centered factors. More often than not, these factors are based on the perceptions of those who hire the product or service of a large home improvement chain, with certain expectations in mind about what they are getting (and not getting). Home Depot can possibly take advantage of reducing the amount of time a transaction is going to take a customer, centralizing control of this process, and expanding operations without actually building any more brick-and-mortar branches, perhaps even by improving the customer-centric nature of its web operations. In many ways, this can be viewed as a win-win outcome for Home Depot, but there is also the obstacle of initial costs in setting up new operations and getting the operation moving primarily in a place where it can be subjected to external over-regulation. There is also the abovementioned danger of changes in the external environment. In conclusion, there are various factors and outcomes which must be realized in the context of the Home Depot situation. One must think of the worst case scenario, cost

2500 words essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

2500 words - Essay Example A concert involves a live performance of music before a significant number of individuals also referred to as audience. Being held in various settings including private houses, nightclubs, entertainment centers, parks and concert halls among other places, concerts comes in different forms based on the musical genre, venue of performance and the individual performers. As an individual who is focused at improving my academic performance, I usually attend music concerts in various places in order to feel relaxed an aspect that improves my concentration. Additionally, I am focused at obtaining adequate information prior to attending the concerts. I usually obtain such information from the internet as well as bill boards that are in most cases elected in major towns and highways. This paper seeks to discuss my experience during my attendance of Rock in Rio 5 concert in September 2013. Rock in Rio is an event that originated from Brazil. Being held in series, the concerts attract large audience who come face to face with well known musicians from various countries. Rock in Rio 5 which is one of the series of Rock in Rio was held on 2013. Some of the notable musicians that participated in the concerts included Justin Timberlake, Beyonce, Bruce Springsteen, Muse and Bon Jovi among others. Having started in Friday 13 September in Brazil, the 7 days event brought together more that 1 million people from different parts of the world. During the first day, David Guetta, Beyonce and Ivete Sangalo did their presentations during the Palco Mundo an event that attracted large audience especially among the college and university students. Majority of the people who arrived at the concerts were attracted by the performance of the three artists who are famous locally and internationally. Based on the fact that a large section of the audience were aware of the songs that were sa ng by Beyonce, the audience was able to sing along with her an aspect that made

Attitude Towards Women Fathers and Sons Essay Example for Free

Attitude Towards Women Fathers and Sons Essay To analyze the attitudes towards the women question and the most useful starting point would be to look at the representation of the liberated woman, Yevdoxia Kukshina, which can be contrasted with the representation of Bazarov’s mother or Nikolai Kirsanov’s wife, the women ideals of the older generation. Kukshina is clearly meant to the representative of the radicalism of the 1850s to1860s, â€Å"the progressive, advanced or educated woman : nigilistka or nihilist woman† (Richard Stites). She has ‘vowed to defend the rights of women to the last drop of my blood’ and is scornful of Sand ‘an out of date woman’. She has separated from her husband and plans to go abroad to study in Paris and Heildelberg. She thus, personifies the emergence of new objectives and tactics among the Russian emancipees of the early 1860s. However, it is also quite obvious that while much has been written about Turgenev’s attitude towards his nihilist hero, there is no doubt that the female nihilist Kukshina is an unflattering caricature and as Walter Smyrniw quotes â€Å"Turgenev has deliberately portrayed Kukshina as a ludicrous and repulsive emancipee.† Walter goes on to argue that in his portrayal of Kukshina, Turgenev lampooned only certain undesirable tendencies generated by Russian emancipees. The worst among them was a lack of genuine involvement, an inadequate commitment to the movement itself. Some merely assumed the roles of the emancipated women and hence their behaviour was both contrived and unnatural. Although many critics have argued along the same lines of Turgenev’s portrayal of Kukshina as a device for irony â€Å"the progressive louse which Turgenev combed out of Russian reality† (Dostoevsky) and that he has assumed the same sentiment in respect to Russian men who merely assumed the pose of materialists and nihilists (eg. Sitnikov), it is hard to escape that in the description of her person and household we find some of the stereotyping of radical women found in most conservative writing. He did not hesitate in expressing value judgments when ridiculing the pretentiousness and hypocrisy of Russian women who merely played the role of emancipees. She is dirty and slovenly in her habits and person, her room is scattered and dusty, her hair disheveled and her dress crumpled. Moreover, her conversation and behaviour is meant to ‘show’ us that her radicalism is shallow and unaffected. The narrator ‘tells’ us that she greets her guests with a string of questions without waiting for answers. It is important to notice here the narrator’s generalization here, which would seem to impute lack of serious concern (feminine casualness) to all women as part of their feminine nature and not to Kukshina as an individual. The narrator draws repeated attention to Kukshina’s unattractive physical appearance almost as if that were partly her fault. Kukshina is unfortunate enough to show her gums above her top teeth when she laughs and her piano playing revels her flat-cut fingernails. However, what is most significant in terms of the dominant patriarchal ideology of the mid-nineteenth century Russia is her declaration, â€Å"I’m free, I have no children.† From a conservative perspective, this would count as near sacrilegious statement. Though Bazarov himself is a serious character, its possible to read Sitnikov as a parody of the younger generation. At Madame Kukshins, the narrator tells us To Sitnikov the chance to be scathing and express contempt was the most agreeable of sensations (13.44).

Critical Success Factors in Supply Chain Management

Critical Success Factors in Supply Chain Management ABSTRACT In todays turbulent economic environment, firms are striving for ways to achieve competitive advantage. One of the approaches is to manage the entire supply chain to reduce costs and improve performance to create competitive advantage and business success. This dissertation explores and investigates how high technology firms use supply chain management to gain competitive advantage and increase business success. The research objective is to determine the critical success factors in supply chain management at high technology companies. This dissertation provides a theoretical framework to understand a firms performance and argues that supply chain management will help a firm to be competitive and successful. To this end, the critical success factors that make a company more competitive are identified. The research design is based on the established and recommended procedures of multiple case study research methodology; and this methodology is used to gather data from five companies in California, USA. The analysis is based primarily on cross-case analysis for the purpose of theoretical generalization about the research issues. The results identify two clusters of company behavior and characteristics, specifically traditional ‘old style manufacturing companies and progressive manufacturing companies. Each cluster of company behaves differently. At the traditional manufacturing companies, the selection of critical supply chain management factors is internally focused on factors that are manufacturing and quality focused, while at the progressive manufacturing companies the selection of critical supply chain management factors is externally focused on factors that are directed to customers and information systems. There are differences between critical supply chain management factors at high technology companies and benchmark (or commodity) companies that were selected in this study. The benchmark companies select supply chain management factors that focus on customer services and quality. This approach is, possibly, due to the fact that the benchmark companies deal in commodity type products and hence they have to focus on differentiating themselves through strong customer services and quality products. Additionally, with the help of supply chain metrics, financial performance data, and understanding the various companies, it is possible to determine which critical supply chain factors best can contribute to business performance. At the case study companies, an external focus on supply chain management factors such as a strong focus on customer relationship and management, gives better business results. Finally, this study has proposed a novel and new approach to improving customer satisfaction by using QFD methodology to identify performance gaps (and opportunities) from the customers viewpoint in supply chain management. If the companies wish to increase customer satisfaction, they have to use the QFD methodology to identify critical supply chain factors. The reason is primarily because performance gaps derived from customer needs emphasize what the customer wants and that is different from the internal perceptions of a companys managers. The initiatives that provide the greatest opportunity have been identified in this analysis. Overall, these findings can be used by high technology firms to select supply chain strategies that will lead to sustainable competitive advantage and hence improve their brand and business performance. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The genesis of this dissertation was a request from a high technology company to investigate the companys supply chain system and identify factors affecting the successful implementation of supply chain management. This chapter serves as an introduction to the dissertation. It comprises eight sections, which cover the background to the research, objective of the research and the research questions, justification and significance of the research, a brief description of the methodology, an outline of the structure of the study, key definitions, delimitations of this research, and the chapters conclusion. 1.1 Background A firms strategies, innovations, and well-planned activities will lead to sustainable competitive advantage and hence improve its brand and business performance. As firms strive for ways to achieve competitive advantage, they are looking for new ideas and solutions. This dissertation addresses the topic of competitive advantage, reviews how firms attempt to achieve it, and focuses on one aspect of competitive advantage managing the supply chain to increase competitive advantage and business success. The early understanding of competitive advantage is based on Leon Walras (1874, 1984) theory of perfect competition. In perfect competition products are homogenous, consumers and producers have perfect information, prices will reach equilibrium, and as a result profits are zero in the long run. A later approach is the Industrial Organization approach (Tirole, 1988), which argues that success comes from market power and a firms efficiency. However, the proponents of this approach agree that in the long term there would be industry equilibrium and little profit. One of the first researchers to propose a theoretical framework for understanding a firms performance is Michael Porter (1980). He takes a strategic and analytical approach to understanding competitive strategy, and argues that, â€Å"Every firm competing in an industry has a competitive strategy, whether explicit or implicit.† Porter asserts that, except for microeconomic theory, the strategy field and literature had offered few analytical techniques for gaining this understanding. Porter (1980) argues that with the right approach it is possible to break away from the economic equilibrium situation and achieve superior performance. Therefore he proposes a framework for analyzing industries and competitors and describes three generic strategies cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. He postulates that to be successful, the firm has to do well in one or more of these strategies. Porters (1980) ideas and proposals on achieving competitive advantage have influenced many other researchers to propose complementary theories on achieving competitive advantage. All the theories proposed by researchers are supported with examples of winning strategies implemented at renowned companies. The theories include an emphasis on planning (Porter, 1980, 1985), strategic approach (Hamel and Prahalad, 1990, 1998; Porter, 1985, 1990, 1991), marketing strategies (Day, 1994, 1999), value chain management (Porter, 1985), and supply chain management (Christopher, 1998; Poirier, 1999; Tyndall et al., 1998). A theory that has gained momentum in the last few years is the concept of supply chain management. In recent years, there have been numerous advances and developments in supply chain techniques and management. One of the reasons is that as trade barriers drop and markets open, competition has become more intense hence companies need to be more competitive and cost effective. An initiative to help achieve this is a supply chain management program. Supply chain management is the management of upstream and downstream activities, resources, and relationships with suppliers and customers, which is required to deliver products or services. In theory, if this is done well it will lead to competitive advantage through differentiation and lower costs as suggested by Porter (1980). Moreover, some researchers claim that effective supply chain management can reduce costs by several percentage points of revenue (Boyson, et. al, 1999). Furthermore, there has been little verification or research d one on measuring competitive advantage gained through supply chain management. Supply chain management is not a static concept or solution. Instead, new advances and techniques for supply chain management continue to mushroom. This tremendous growth in new ideas and processes is starting to influence and change the business processes and models of companies. Hence companies have many choices in selecting programs in supply chain management. In making their choices, companies need to plan for effective supply chain management, in order to gain competitive advantage. However, to ensure that effective supply chain management can provide business success, this study must determine the critical success factors in supply chain management that can provide competitive advantage. Furthermore, these critical success factors must be identified and conveyed to senior management in firms that want to have an effective supply chain management program. 1.2 Objective of this research The objective of this dissertation is to explore and investigate how firms scope, design, and implement supply chain management in order to gain competitive advantage. Most importantly, this dissertation endeavors to determine the critical success factors in supply chain management that can provide competitive advantage. It also explores and investigates the advances and new ideas in supply chain management and examines how firms scope, design, and implement supply chain management in order to gain competitive advantage. The genesis of this dissertation was a request from a high technology company to investigate the companys supply chain system and propose improvements to help make it more competitive. The company is headquartered in California USA, and this author works for one of the companys business unit as General Manager for Distribution. The request was to investigate the companys supply chain management system and to propose improvements that would make it more competitive This dissertation provides a theoretical framework to understand a firms performance and argues that supply chain management is an approach that will help a firm to be competitive and successful. Furthermore, in using supply chain management, firms are faced with choices on what supply chain techniques and developments to adopt for their businesses. This dissertation wil review the choices that high technology companies have today, and will make recommendations to select the best choices, or critical success factors, based on business and customer needs. Therefore, the research objective is to: Determine the critical success factors in supply chain management at high technology companies. In fulfilling this objective, this dissertation also addresses the following research issues: 1. Are there differences between critical supply chain management factors at various high technology companies? 2. Are there differences between critical supply chain management factors at high technology companies and non high technology (or benchmark commodity) companies? 3. Will a focus on external supply chain management factors give better business results? 4. Are perceived critical gaps (and opportunities) in performance derived from traditional methodology similar to those deployed from customer needs? In this study, the critical success factors to make a company more competitive are identified. To ensure a robust analysis and conclusion, the expectations and perceptions of respondents, involved in this study, are taken into consideration as well as customer requirements. 1.3 Significance of the research There are many theories and empirical studies on competitive advantage. However, the empirical studies, using mathematical models, tend to be limited in scope (Porter, 1991; Buzzel and Gale, 1990), and do not include supply chain management parameters. While there has been much research on activities that can provide competitive advantage, there is little knowledge on the process of selection and impact of supply chain management on the competitive position and business performance of a high technology firm. Firms need to understand how supply chain management can help them achieve competitive advantage. Furthermore, there is an expectation that high technology companies will use leading edge technology and invest heavily in supply chain management. This dissertation makes the following contributions: 1. Fulfils a request from a high technology company: The author of this study works for a high technology company, head-quartered in California USA, and was requested to investigate the companys (business unit) supply chain system and propose improvements to help make it more competitive. 2. Identifies the critical success factors in supply chain management from a high technology companys viewpoint. Often when reviewing critical success factors, only the perception of respondents is taken into account. However, in this analysis both the perceptions and expectations of respondents are taken into consideration. Such an analysis will be more robust and will allow performance gaps to be analyzed and understood. 3. Identifies the critical success factors in supply chain management from customers of high technology companies. To enhance the relevance of the conclusions, customer requirements are also taken into consideration by using the quality function deployment (QFD) methodology and these are compared to the high technology companies performance gaps. Such an analysis will allow performance gaps to be analyzed and understood from the viewpoint of customers of high technology companies. 4. Contributes to the understanding of how high technology companies scope, design, and develop their supply chain management system. 1.4 Research Methodology This study employs the qualitative research process using multiple case studies. There are several reasons for this: Since the focus of this research is on high technology companies operating in California, USA, there is a concern that there will be a small number of companies willing to participate in a large (sample size) quantitative survey. Furthermore face-to-face meetings with respondents can help provide understanding and information on several qualitative areas, such as: reasons for implementing specific supply chain factors (or strategies), customer needs data, and discussions and feedback on the questionnaire. Also, cases can be viewed and studied alone and across cases to provide comparison and contrast and richer details and insights regarding the research issues (Eisenhardt 1989; Stake 1994; Yin 1994). Hence this research will be done via a multiple case study approach using structured interviews with a questionnaire (Yin, 1994).5 1.5 Structure of the dissertation In addition to this introductory chapter, this dissertation consists of four chapters ( 1.1). Chapter 2 reviews the relevant literature, addresses the disciplines under investigation, and provides an overview of competitive advantage. The chapter then provides a detailed review of the current literature and practices of supply chain management. With that as the background, chapter 2 continues into identifying gaps in the literature and provides the rationale for selecting the research topic and issues. Chapter 5Conclusion and opportunities for further researchChapter 1IntroductionChapter 3Research methodologyChapter 2Literature review and research issuesChapter 4Data analysis and interpretationsChapter interpretations Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology used for this study and it includes: the justification of the research methodology, a discussion on preparation of the questionnaire and the data gathering process, the process used for data analysis and determining gaps, the process used to generate recommendations from the data, and concludes with a discussion on the limitations of case study research. Chapter 4 summarizes the data collected from the selected companies and respondents and aims to interpret the data in relation to the research objective. Each of the four research issues is analyzed, interpreted, and the detailed findings are presented. The chapter concludes with a summary of the research findings. Chapter 5 provides a summary of the findings and conclusions of the research objective and issues, discusses the contribution of the research findings to the literature and theory, reviews the implications of the findings, discusses the limitations of the research, and concludes with suggested direction for future research. 1.6 Key definitions Definitions adopted by researchers are often not uniform; hence key terms are defined to establish positions taken for this dissertation (Perry 1998). This will ensure that subsequent research, undertaken at a later stage, will better measure and compare what this dissertation has set out to do. †¢ Logistics: The management and movement of product and services, including storage and warehousing, and their transport via air, land, and water (Coyle, Bardi, and Langley, 1988). †¢ Supply chain: Consists of all inter-linked resources and activities needed to create and deliver products and services to customers (Hakanson, 1999). †¢ Supply chain management: This includes managing supply and demand, sourcing raw materials and parts, manufacturing and assembly, distribution across all channels, and delivery to the customer (Supply Chain Council, 2001). †¢ Supply chain agility or agile supply chain: An agile supply chain is one that is flexible and has a business-wide capability that embraces organizational structures, information systems, and logistics processes. (Christopher, 2000) †¢ Critical success factors (CSF): Critical success factors are those few things that must go well to ensure success for a manager or organization, and therefore may represent those managerial or enterprise areas that must be given continual attention. CSFs include issues vital to an organizations current operating activities and to its future success (Boynton and Zmud, 1984). †¢ Customer relationship management (CRM): CRM is the management of technology, processes, information, and people in order to maximize each customer contact by obtaining a 360-degree view of the customer (Galbreath and Rogers, 1999). †¢ Performance gap: This is a gap between the perceived performance and the expected importance of a factor (in this dissertation it is a supply chain factor). The performance gap provides an indication as to whether executives and managers are successful in translating their vision to their employees and hence such perception may give an indication regarding the degree of employees alignment with the organizations vision. If a factor is critical and has a negative value of factor alignment (perceived performance is less than the expectation), then the organization may have a potential problem with that factor. Information on factor alignment allows executives to develop a strategy to overcome the challenges associated with the gaps between importance and performance. (Martilla and James, 1977). †¢ Quality Function Deployment (QFD): QFD is a comprehensive quality tool that can be used to uncover customers spoken and unspoken needs, and convert these needs to product or service design targets and processes (Akao, 1990). 1.7 Delimitation There are several delimitations in this dissertation. †¢ The theoretical model derived from this dissertation is only applicable to the high technology companies. †¢ The dissertation is focused on companies operating geographically in California, United States of America, where there is a concentration of high technology companies. †¢ This dissertation is an exploratory research and will have to be tested for generalizability in later, more extensive, quantitative research (Perry, 1998). †¢ There is no scientific basis for choosing the number of cases in this dissertation. The number selected is based on the experiences and recommendations of the research and academic community (Eisenhardt, 1989; Perry, 1998). 1.8 Conclusion This chapter provides an overview of the dissertation. The aim, objectives, and justification of the research topic were discussed. The dissertation is an investigation on the impact of a supply chain management system on the competitive position of high technology business firms. It explores and investigates new ideas in supply chain management and examines how high technology firms manage and improve their supply chain management system. Furthermore, this dissertation will analyze the gaps and opportunities for supply chain management in high technology companies and give a set of recommendations. The methodology was briefly described, key definitions were explained, delimitations of this research were addressed, and the structure of the dissertation was outlined. With all the important areas of the research briefly introduced in this chapter, the following four chapters of this dissertation will present detailed description and findings of the research topic. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH ISSUES The previous chapter provided an overview of the dissertation and listed the objective, issues, and significance of the research topic. This chapter reviews the relevant literature and comprises of six sections. The review starts with a discussion on early approaches to understanding a firms performance and its competitive advantage. This is followed by the development of a theoretical framework and a discussion on contemporary approaches to competitive advantage. Next there is a discussion on supply chain management, followed by an overview of advanced supply chain management systems. The last two sections conclude with a discussion on gaps in the literature, identification of areas for further research, and the summary. 2.1 Early approaches to understanding a firms performance and competitive advantage One of the earliest (chronologically) approaches to competitive advantage is the microeconomic approach, or the idea of perfect competition (Walras, 1874, 1969). In perfect competition products are homogenous, consumers and producers have perfect information, prices will reach equilibrium, and as a result profits are negligible or low in the long run. However, according to Gill (1991), such a perfect economy is an abstraction, because there are monopolies, oligopolies, and perfect competition. Furthermore, there are also two kinds of competition: spatial and monopolistic. Spatial differentiation pertains to oligopolistic competition (Hotelling, 1929), and it meets consumers different tastes. Monopolistic competition assumes that small firms produce a variety of differentiated products (Chamberlin, 1933; in Gill, 1991). All these situations allow for profit maximization and higher profits (Gill, 1991). The industrial organization (IO) approach takes a richer approach to understanding a firms successful performance. IO differs from the microeconomic approach by introducing variables that explain real-world economic behavior. In IO, there are two competing hypothesis that lead to higher profits and success market power and a firms efficiency (Scherer, 1990; Tirole, 1988). Nevertheless, the IO approach assumes that markets and firms will reach equilibrium, and in equilibrium profits differences will not exist (Tirole, 1988). Both the microeconomic approach and the industrial organization approach assume that all firms would reach equilibrium and have equal profit and success. However, we know from a daily look at many firms performance on the stock market that profit and performance vary across firms, even when they are in the same business. Eaton and Lipsey (1978) have verified that differences in performance and profit exist between firms. 2.2 Contemporary approaches to achieving competitive advantage 2.2.1 Framework to understanding a firms performance One of the first researchers to propose a theoretical framework for understanding a firms performance is Porter (1980). He takes a strategic and analytical approach to understanding competitive strategy, and argued that, â€Å"Every firm competing in an industry has a competitive strategy, whether explicit or implicit† (Porter, 1980, p. xiii). He proposes a framework for analyzing industries and competitors and describes three generic strategies cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. He postulates that if a firm is able to do well in any of these strategies, it will gain competitive advantage. Porters concept is illustrated in 2-1. Generic Competitive Strategies†¢Overall cost leadership†¢Differentiation†¢FocusCompetitive Advantageof a Firm †¢ Cost leadership requires efficient-scale facilities, pursuit of cost reductions, and cost minimization in all areas of the firm. This will give more profit. †¢ Differentiation of product or service requires industry-wide differentiation, including design and brand image, customer service, and distribution or dealer network. Product or service differentiation will help increase customer loyalty and ensure repurchase. †¢ Focus on markets, buyers, or product lines can maximize profits. The framework, in 2-1, shows that the right strategies can provide competitive advantage. Porter (1985) also argues that competitive advantage come from the many discrete activities a firm performs in designing, producing, marketing, delivering, and supporting its product. Each of these activities contributes to a firms relative cost position and creates a basis for differentiation. This is the value chain, and a firm has to disaggregate its strategically relevant activities in order to understand the behavior of costs and the existing and potential sources of differentiation. A firm gains competitive advantage by performing these strategically important activities cheaper or better than its competitors (Porter, 1985), and this can lead to a higher profit margin. The value chain concept is illustrated in 2-2. Profit Margin Outbound Logistics Manufacturing Operations, and other Internal Processes Inbound Logistics Procurement Human Resource Management Technology Development Firm Infrastructure and Platform Services Customer Service Marketing and Sales Primary Activities Support Activities Supply Chain Approach Strategic Planning Approach Marketing Capabilities Approach The Value Chain and Theoretical Framework to Achieve Competitive Advantage Adapted from Porter (1985) and this literature review. Note 1: Key approaches to competitive advantage are highlighted with underlined Characters Note 2: The definition of supply chain implies all activities necessary to deliver a product (Hakanson, 1999). Therefore sales, marketing, and customer service activities can be construed as part of the supply chain approach shown in the . In this study, sales and marketing processes, such as demand management, order processing, and customer relationship management are included in the internal processes shown in the and in the supply chain literature review. However, sales and marketing activity, such as sales calls, advertising, product positioning, market research, and some post delivery support processes are excluded from supply chain activity. This is consistent with the approach taken by the Supply Chain Council and the SCOR (Supply Chain Operational Reference) model it uses to measure supply chain activity (Supply Chain Council, 2001). 2.2.2 Summary of contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Porters approach presents new thinking to competitive advantage (Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece, 1991) and has influenced other approaches to creating competitive advantage. Many of the other approaches to competitive advantage are summarized in Table 2-1. From the table, it can be seen that all the approaches to increasing competitive advantage, except for the early microeconomic and industrial organization approaches, fit the theoretical framework in 2-2. However, all these approaches to competitive advantage are complementary and not alternatives or conflicting theories they basically propose various segments of the theoretical framework shown in 2-2. The various approaches are discussed very briefly below, but the last approach (in Table 2-1), Supply Chain Management, is discussed in greater detail. 2.2.3 The strategic planning approach In essence, Porters (1980, 1985) approaches are strategic planning approaches, i.e. a firms competitive advantage can be planned for. This includes planning for differentiation in the value chain, low cost leadership, and focus. Nations can also be competitive (Porter, 1990). Nations need four conditions to gain competitive advantage and be successful. The four conditions are: factor conditions (education and skill levels), demand conditions (or market size), related and supporting industries, and company strategy and rivalry (Porter, 1990). Strategy is â€Å"lucky foresight†¦Strategy is always the product of a complex and unexpected interplay between ideas, information, personalities, and desire† according to Hamel (1998). What this implies is that one does not settle for obvious solutions and strategies but should look at alternatives, challenge assumptions, and look at new ways of delivering superior customer value and firm performance. Table 2-1 Summary of early and contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Approach Proponent Main idea/postulate Comments Microeconomic Walras (1874, 1984) Perfect competition results in negligible profits Ideas ignore monopolies, oligopolies, and product differentiation. Profit does vary across firms according to Eaton and Lipsey (1978). Industrial Organization Scherer (1990), Tirole (1988) Success comes from market power and a firms efficiency. All proponents agree that in the long term there will be industry equilibrium and little profit. Porter (1980) Porter (1985) Provides a framework for achieving competitive advantage. Every firm has a generic competitive strategy in cost leadership, market focus, or differentiation. The value chain disaggregates a firm into its strategically relevant activities. A firm gains competitive advantage by performing these important activities better than its competitors. Challenges the stereotype approach of perfect competition and industry equilibrium. Provides a prescriptive approach to achieve competitive advantage, but the ideas and solutions are essentially conceptual. Hamel (1998) Strategy is the product of a complex and unexpected interplay between ideas, information, personalities, and desire. A firm has to seek alternatives and new ways of delivering superior customer value and firm performance. The Strategic Approach and its Variations Value Chain Approach Strategic Approach Resource Based Approach Wernerfelt (1984), Barney (1991), Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece (1991). A firm has to identify specific, or rare, resources that lead to higher profits. Long-term superior performance comes from building product market positions that effectively utilize and maintain these resources. Examples of such resources include customer loyalty, and technological leads. If the resources are unique and difficult to duplicate, then the firm achieves competitive advantage. Table 2-1 (Continued) Summary of early and contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Approach Proponent Main idea/postulate Comments Market Strategy Marketing Capabilities Approach Resource-Advantage Theory Product Differentiation Day (1994,1999), Cool and Dierickx (1989), Aaker (1989), Caves and Ghemawat (1986). Also, Buzzell an Critical Success Factors in Supply Chain Management Critical Success Factors in Supply Chain Management ABSTRACT In todays turbulent economic environment, firms are striving for ways to achieve competitive advantage. One of the approaches is to manage the entire supply chain to reduce costs and improve performance to create competitive advantage and business success. This dissertation explores and investigates how high technology firms use supply chain management to gain competitive advantage and increase business success. The research objective is to determine the critical success factors in supply chain management at high technology companies. This dissertation provides a theoretical framework to understand a firms performance and argues that supply chain management will help a firm to be competitive and successful. To this end, the critical success factors that make a company more competitive are identified. The research design is based on the established and recommended procedures of multiple case study research methodology; and this methodology is used to gather data from five companies in California, USA. The analysis is based primarily on cross-case analysis for the purpose of theoretical generalization about the research issues. The results identify two clusters of company behavior and characteristics, specifically traditional ‘old style manufacturing companies and progressive manufacturing companies. Each cluster of company behaves differently. At the traditional manufacturing companies, the selection of critical supply chain management factors is internally focused on factors that are manufacturing and quality focused, while at the progressive manufacturing companies the selection of critical supply chain management factors is externally focused on factors that are directed to customers and information systems. There are differences between critical supply chain management factors at high technology companies and benchmark (or commodity) companies that were selected in this study. The benchmark companies select supply chain management factors that focus on customer services and quality. This approach is, possibly, due to the fact that the benchmark companies deal in commodity type products and hence they have to focus on differentiating themselves through strong customer services and quality products. Additionally, with the help of supply chain metrics, financial performance data, and understanding the various companies, it is possible to determine which critical supply chain factors best can contribute to business performance. At the case study companies, an external focus on supply chain management factors such as a strong focus on customer relationship and management, gives better business results. Finally, this study has proposed a novel and new approach to improving customer satisfaction by using QFD methodology to identify performance gaps (and opportunities) from the customers viewpoint in supply chain management. If the companies wish to increase customer satisfaction, they have to use the QFD methodology to identify critical supply chain factors. The reason is primarily because performance gaps derived from customer needs emphasize what the customer wants and that is different from the internal perceptions of a companys managers. The initiatives that provide the greatest opportunity have been identified in this analysis. Overall, these findings can be used by high technology firms to select supply chain strategies that will lead to sustainable competitive advantage and hence improve their brand and business performance. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION The genesis of this dissertation was a request from a high technology company to investigate the companys supply chain system and identify factors affecting the successful implementation of supply chain management. This chapter serves as an introduction to the dissertation. It comprises eight sections, which cover the background to the research, objective of the research and the research questions, justification and significance of the research, a brief description of the methodology, an outline of the structure of the study, key definitions, delimitations of this research, and the chapters conclusion. 1.1 Background A firms strategies, innovations, and well-planned activities will lead to sustainable competitive advantage and hence improve its brand and business performance. As firms strive for ways to achieve competitive advantage, they are looking for new ideas and solutions. This dissertation addresses the topic of competitive advantage, reviews how firms attempt to achieve it, and focuses on one aspect of competitive advantage managing the supply chain to increase competitive advantage and business success. The early understanding of competitive advantage is based on Leon Walras (1874, 1984) theory of perfect competition. In perfect competition products are homogenous, consumers and producers have perfect information, prices will reach equilibrium, and as a result profits are zero in the long run. A later approach is the Industrial Organization approach (Tirole, 1988), which argues that success comes from market power and a firms efficiency. However, the proponents of this approach agree that in the long term there would be industry equilibrium and little profit. One of the first researchers to propose a theoretical framework for understanding a firms performance is Michael Porter (1980). He takes a strategic and analytical approach to understanding competitive strategy, and argues that, â€Å"Every firm competing in an industry has a competitive strategy, whether explicit or implicit.† Porter asserts that, except for microeconomic theory, the strategy field and literature had offered few analytical techniques for gaining this understanding. Porter (1980) argues that with the right approach it is possible to break away from the economic equilibrium situation and achieve superior performance. Therefore he proposes a framework for analyzing industries and competitors and describes three generic strategies cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. He postulates that to be successful, the firm has to do well in one or more of these strategies. Porters (1980) ideas and proposals on achieving competitive advantage have influenced many other researchers to propose complementary theories on achieving competitive advantage. All the theories proposed by researchers are supported with examples of winning strategies implemented at renowned companies. The theories include an emphasis on planning (Porter, 1980, 1985), strategic approach (Hamel and Prahalad, 1990, 1998; Porter, 1985, 1990, 1991), marketing strategies (Day, 1994, 1999), value chain management (Porter, 1985), and supply chain management (Christopher, 1998; Poirier, 1999; Tyndall et al., 1998). A theory that has gained momentum in the last few years is the concept of supply chain management. In recent years, there have been numerous advances and developments in supply chain techniques and management. One of the reasons is that as trade barriers drop and markets open, competition has become more intense hence companies need to be more competitive and cost effective. An initiative to help achieve this is a supply chain management program. Supply chain management is the management of upstream and downstream activities, resources, and relationships with suppliers and customers, which is required to deliver products or services. In theory, if this is done well it will lead to competitive advantage through differentiation and lower costs as suggested by Porter (1980). Moreover, some researchers claim that effective supply chain management can reduce costs by several percentage points of revenue (Boyson, et. al, 1999). Furthermore, there has been little verification or research d one on measuring competitive advantage gained through supply chain management. Supply chain management is not a static concept or solution. Instead, new advances and techniques for supply chain management continue to mushroom. This tremendous growth in new ideas and processes is starting to influence and change the business processes and models of companies. Hence companies have many choices in selecting programs in supply chain management. In making their choices, companies need to plan for effective supply chain management, in order to gain competitive advantage. However, to ensure that effective supply chain management can provide business success, this study must determine the critical success factors in supply chain management that can provide competitive advantage. Furthermore, these critical success factors must be identified and conveyed to senior management in firms that want to have an effective supply chain management program. 1.2 Objective of this research The objective of this dissertation is to explore and investigate how firms scope, design, and implement supply chain management in order to gain competitive advantage. Most importantly, this dissertation endeavors to determine the critical success factors in supply chain management that can provide competitive advantage. It also explores and investigates the advances and new ideas in supply chain management and examines how firms scope, design, and implement supply chain management in order to gain competitive advantage. The genesis of this dissertation was a request from a high technology company to investigate the companys supply chain system and propose improvements to help make it more competitive. The company is headquartered in California USA, and this author works for one of the companys business unit as General Manager for Distribution. The request was to investigate the companys supply chain management system and to propose improvements that would make it more competitive This dissertation provides a theoretical framework to understand a firms performance and argues that supply chain management is an approach that will help a firm to be competitive and successful. Furthermore, in using supply chain management, firms are faced with choices on what supply chain techniques and developments to adopt for their businesses. This dissertation wil review the choices that high technology companies have today, and will make recommendations to select the best choices, or critical success factors, based on business and customer needs. Therefore, the research objective is to: Determine the critical success factors in supply chain management at high technology companies. In fulfilling this objective, this dissertation also addresses the following research issues: 1. Are there differences between critical supply chain management factors at various high technology companies? 2. Are there differences between critical supply chain management factors at high technology companies and non high technology (or benchmark commodity) companies? 3. Will a focus on external supply chain management factors give better business results? 4. Are perceived critical gaps (and opportunities) in performance derived from traditional methodology similar to those deployed from customer needs? In this study, the critical success factors to make a company more competitive are identified. To ensure a robust analysis and conclusion, the expectations and perceptions of respondents, involved in this study, are taken into consideration as well as customer requirements. 1.3 Significance of the research There are many theories and empirical studies on competitive advantage. However, the empirical studies, using mathematical models, tend to be limited in scope (Porter, 1991; Buzzel and Gale, 1990), and do not include supply chain management parameters. While there has been much research on activities that can provide competitive advantage, there is little knowledge on the process of selection and impact of supply chain management on the competitive position and business performance of a high technology firm. Firms need to understand how supply chain management can help them achieve competitive advantage. Furthermore, there is an expectation that high technology companies will use leading edge technology and invest heavily in supply chain management. This dissertation makes the following contributions: 1. Fulfils a request from a high technology company: The author of this study works for a high technology company, head-quartered in California USA, and was requested to investigate the companys (business unit) supply chain system and propose improvements to help make it more competitive. 2. Identifies the critical success factors in supply chain management from a high technology companys viewpoint. Often when reviewing critical success factors, only the perception of respondents is taken into account. However, in this analysis both the perceptions and expectations of respondents are taken into consideration. Such an analysis will be more robust and will allow performance gaps to be analyzed and understood. 3. Identifies the critical success factors in supply chain management from customers of high technology companies. To enhance the relevance of the conclusions, customer requirements are also taken into consideration by using the quality function deployment (QFD) methodology and these are compared to the high technology companies performance gaps. Such an analysis will allow performance gaps to be analyzed and understood from the viewpoint of customers of high technology companies. 4. Contributes to the understanding of how high technology companies scope, design, and develop their supply chain management system. 1.4 Research Methodology This study employs the qualitative research process using multiple case studies. There are several reasons for this: Since the focus of this research is on high technology companies operating in California, USA, there is a concern that there will be a small number of companies willing to participate in a large (sample size) quantitative survey. Furthermore face-to-face meetings with respondents can help provide understanding and information on several qualitative areas, such as: reasons for implementing specific supply chain factors (or strategies), customer needs data, and discussions and feedback on the questionnaire. Also, cases can be viewed and studied alone and across cases to provide comparison and contrast and richer details and insights regarding the research issues (Eisenhardt 1989; Stake 1994; Yin 1994). Hence this research will be done via a multiple case study approach using structured interviews with a questionnaire (Yin, 1994).5 1.5 Structure of the dissertation In addition to this introductory chapter, this dissertation consists of four chapters ( 1.1). Chapter 2 reviews the relevant literature, addresses the disciplines under investigation, and provides an overview of competitive advantage. The chapter then provides a detailed review of the current literature and practices of supply chain management. With that as the background, chapter 2 continues into identifying gaps in the literature and provides the rationale for selecting the research topic and issues. Chapter 5Conclusion and opportunities for further researchChapter 1IntroductionChapter 3Research methodologyChapter 2Literature review and research issuesChapter 4Data analysis and interpretationsChapter interpretations Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology used for this study and it includes: the justification of the research methodology, a discussion on preparation of the questionnaire and the data gathering process, the process used for data analysis and determining gaps, the process used to generate recommendations from the data, and concludes with a discussion on the limitations of case study research. Chapter 4 summarizes the data collected from the selected companies and respondents and aims to interpret the data in relation to the research objective. Each of the four research issues is analyzed, interpreted, and the detailed findings are presented. The chapter concludes with a summary of the research findings. Chapter 5 provides a summary of the findings and conclusions of the research objective and issues, discusses the contribution of the research findings to the literature and theory, reviews the implications of the findings, discusses the limitations of the research, and concludes with suggested direction for future research. 1.6 Key definitions Definitions adopted by researchers are often not uniform; hence key terms are defined to establish positions taken for this dissertation (Perry 1998). This will ensure that subsequent research, undertaken at a later stage, will better measure and compare what this dissertation has set out to do. †¢ Logistics: The management and movement of product and services, including storage and warehousing, and their transport via air, land, and water (Coyle, Bardi, and Langley, 1988). †¢ Supply chain: Consists of all inter-linked resources and activities needed to create and deliver products and services to customers (Hakanson, 1999). †¢ Supply chain management: This includes managing supply and demand, sourcing raw materials and parts, manufacturing and assembly, distribution across all channels, and delivery to the customer (Supply Chain Council, 2001). †¢ Supply chain agility or agile supply chain: An agile supply chain is one that is flexible and has a business-wide capability that embraces organizational structures, information systems, and logistics processes. (Christopher, 2000) †¢ Critical success factors (CSF): Critical success factors are those few things that must go well to ensure success for a manager or organization, and therefore may represent those managerial or enterprise areas that must be given continual attention. CSFs include issues vital to an organizations current operating activities and to its future success (Boynton and Zmud, 1984). †¢ Customer relationship management (CRM): CRM is the management of technology, processes, information, and people in order to maximize each customer contact by obtaining a 360-degree view of the customer (Galbreath and Rogers, 1999). †¢ Performance gap: This is a gap between the perceived performance and the expected importance of a factor (in this dissertation it is a supply chain factor). The performance gap provides an indication as to whether executives and managers are successful in translating their vision to their employees and hence such perception may give an indication regarding the degree of employees alignment with the organizations vision. If a factor is critical and has a negative value of factor alignment (perceived performance is less than the expectation), then the organization may have a potential problem with that factor. Information on factor alignment allows executives to develop a strategy to overcome the challenges associated with the gaps between importance and performance. (Martilla and James, 1977). †¢ Quality Function Deployment (QFD): QFD is a comprehensive quality tool that can be used to uncover customers spoken and unspoken needs, and convert these needs to product or service design targets and processes (Akao, 1990). 1.7 Delimitation There are several delimitations in this dissertation. †¢ The theoretical model derived from this dissertation is only applicable to the high technology companies. †¢ The dissertation is focused on companies operating geographically in California, United States of America, where there is a concentration of high technology companies. †¢ This dissertation is an exploratory research and will have to be tested for generalizability in later, more extensive, quantitative research (Perry, 1998). †¢ There is no scientific basis for choosing the number of cases in this dissertation. The number selected is based on the experiences and recommendations of the research and academic community (Eisenhardt, 1989; Perry, 1998). 1.8 Conclusion This chapter provides an overview of the dissertation. The aim, objectives, and justification of the research topic were discussed. The dissertation is an investigation on the impact of a supply chain management system on the competitive position of high technology business firms. It explores and investigates new ideas in supply chain management and examines how high technology firms manage and improve their supply chain management system. Furthermore, this dissertation will analyze the gaps and opportunities for supply chain management in high technology companies and give a set of recommendations. The methodology was briefly described, key definitions were explained, delimitations of this research were addressed, and the structure of the dissertation was outlined. With all the important areas of the research briefly introduced in this chapter, the following four chapters of this dissertation will present detailed description and findings of the research topic. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW AND RESEARCH ISSUES The previous chapter provided an overview of the dissertation and listed the objective, issues, and significance of the research topic. This chapter reviews the relevant literature and comprises of six sections. The review starts with a discussion on early approaches to understanding a firms performance and its competitive advantage. This is followed by the development of a theoretical framework and a discussion on contemporary approaches to competitive advantage. Next there is a discussion on supply chain management, followed by an overview of advanced supply chain management systems. The last two sections conclude with a discussion on gaps in the literature, identification of areas for further research, and the summary. 2.1 Early approaches to understanding a firms performance and competitive advantage One of the earliest (chronologically) approaches to competitive advantage is the microeconomic approach, or the idea of perfect competition (Walras, 1874, 1969). In perfect competition products are homogenous, consumers and producers have perfect information, prices will reach equilibrium, and as a result profits are negligible or low in the long run. However, according to Gill (1991), such a perfect economy is an abstraction, because there are monopolies, oligopolies, and perfect competition. Furthermore, there are also two kinds of competition: spatial and monopolistic. Spatial differentiation pertains to oligopolistic competition (Hotelling, 1929), and it meets consumers different tastes. Monopolistic competition assumes that small firms produce a variety of differentiated products (Chamberlin, 1933; in Gill, 1991). All these situations allow for profit maximization and higher profits (Gill, 1991). The industrial organization (IO) approach takes a richer approach to understanding a firms successful performance. IO differs from the microeconomic approach by introducing variables that explain real-world economic behavior. In IO, there are two competing hypothesis that lead to higher profits and success market power and a firms efficiency (Scherer, 1990; Tirole, 1988). Nevertheless, the IO approach assumes that markets and firms will reach equilibrium, and in equilibrium profits differences will not exist (Tirole, 1988). Both the microeconomic approach and the industrial organization approach assume that all firms would reach equilibrium and have equal profit and success. However, we know from a daily look at many firms performance on the stock market that profit and performance vary across firms, even when they are in the same business. Eaton and Lipsey (1978) have verified that differences in performance and profit exist between firms. 2.2 Contemporary approaches to achieving competitive advantage 2.2.1 Framework to understanding a firms performance One of the first researchers to propose a theoretical framework for understanding a firms performance is Porter (1980). He takes a strategic and analytical approach to understanding competitive strategy, and argued that, â€Å"Every firm competing in an industry has a competitive strategy, whether explicit or implicit† (Porter, 1980, p. xiii). He proposes a framework for analyzing industries and competitors and describes three generic strategies cost leadership, differentiation, and focus. He postulates that if a firm is able to do well in any of these strategies, it will gain competitive advantage. Porters concept is illustrated in 2-1. Generic Competitive Strategies†¢Overall cost leadership†¢Differentiation†¢FocusCompetitive Advantageof a Firm †¢ Cost leadership requires efficient-scale facilities, pursuit of cost reductions, and cost minimization in all areas of the firm. This will give more profit. †¢ Differentiation of product or service requires industry-wide differentiation, including design and brand image, customer service, and distribution or dealer network. Product or service differentiation will help increase customer loyalty and ensure repurchase. †¢ Focus on markets, buyers, or product lines can maximize profits. The framework, in 2-1, shows that the right strategies can provide competitive advantage. Porter (1985) also argues that competitive advantage come from the many discrete activities a firm performs in designing, producing, marketing, delivering, and supporting its product. Each of these activities contributes to a firms relative cost position and creates a basis for differentiation. This is the value chain, and a firm has to disaggregate its strategically relevant activities in order to understand the behavior of costs and the existing and potential sources of differentiation. A firm gains competitive advantage by performing these strategically important activities cheaper or better than its competitors (Porter, 1985), and this can lead to a higher profit margin. The value chain concept is illustrated in 2-2. Profit Margin Outbound Logistics Manufacturing Operations, and other Internal Processes Inbound Logistics Procurement Human Resource Management Technology Development Firm Infrastructure and Platform Services Customer Service Marketing and Sales Primary Activities Support Activities Supply Chain Approach Strategic Planning Approach Marketing Capabilities Approach The Value Chain and Theoretical Framework to Achieve Competitive Advantage Adapted from Porter (1985) and this literature review. Note 1: Key approaches to competitive advantage are highlighted with underlined Characters Note 2: The definition of supply chain implies all activities necessary to deliver a product (Hakanson, 1999). Therefore sales, marketing, and customer service activities can be construed as part of the supply chain approach shown in the . In this study, sales and marketing processes, such as demand management, order processing, and customer relationship management are included in the internal processes shown in the and in the supply chain literature review. However, sales and marketing activity, such as sales calls, advertising, product positioning, market research, and some post delivery support processes are excluded from supply chain activity. This is consistent with the approach taken by the Supply Chain Council and the SCOR (Supply Chain Operational Reference) model it uses to measure supply chain activity (Supply Chain Council, 2001). 2.2.2 Summary of contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Porters approach presents new thinking to competitive advantage (Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece, 1991) and has influenced other approaches to creating competitive advantage. Many of the other approaches to competitive advantage are summarized in Table 2-1. From the table, it can be seen that all the approaches to increasing competitive advantage, except for the early microeconomic and industrial organization approaches, fit the theoretical framework in 2-2. However, all these approaches to competitive advantage are complementary and not alternatives or conflicting theories they basically propose various segments of the theoretical framework shown in 2-2. The various approaches are discussed very briefly below, but the last approach (in Table 2-1), Supply Chain Management, is discussed in greater detail. 2.2.3 The strategic planning approach In essence, Porters (1980, 1985) approaches are strategic planning approaches, i.e. a firms competitive advantage can be planned for. This includes planning for differentiation in the value chain, low cost leadership, and focus. Nations can also be competitive (Porter, 1990). Nations need four conditions to gain competitive advantage and be successful. The four conditions are: factor conditions (education and skill levels), demand conditions (or market size), related and supporting industries, and company strategy and rivalry (Porter, 1990). Strategy is â€Å"lucky foresight†¦Strategy is always the product of a complex and unexpected interplay between ideas, information, personalities, and desire† according to Hamel (1998). What this implies is that one does not settle for obvious solutions and strategies but should look at alternatives, challenge assumptions, and look at new ways of delivering superior customer value and firm performance. Table 2-1 Summary of early and contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Approach Proponent Main idea/postulate Comments Microeconomic Walras (1874, 1984) Perfect competition results in negligible profits Ideas ignore monopolies, oligopolies, and product differentiation. Profit does vary across firms according to Eaton and Lipsey (1978). Industrial Organization Scherer (1990), Tirole (1988) Success comes from market power and a firms efficiency. All proponents agree that in the long term there will be industry equilibrium and little profit. Porter (1980) Porter (1985) Provides a framework for achieving competitive advantage. Every firm has a generic competitive strategy in cost leadership, market focus, or differentiation. The value chain disaggregates a firm into its strategically relevant activities. A firm gains competitive advantage by performing these important activities better than its competitors. Challenges the stereotype approach of perfect competition and industry equilibrium. Provides a prescriptive approach to achieve competitive advantage, but the ideas and solutions are essentially conceptual. Hamel (1998) Strategy is the product of a complex and unexpected interplay between ideas, information, personalities, and desire. A firm has to seek alternatives and new ways of delivering superior customer value and firm performance. The Strategic Approach and its Variations Value Chain Approach Strategic Approach Resource Based Approach Wernerfelt (1984), Barney (1991), Rumelt, Schendel, and Teece (1991). A firm has to identify specific, or rare, resources that lead to higher profits. Long-term superior performance comes from building product market positions that effectively utilize and maintain these resources. Examples of such resources include customer loyalty, and technological leads. If the resources are unique and difficult to duplicate, then the firm achieves competitive advantage. Table 2-1 (Continued) Summary of early and contemporary approaches to competitive advantage Approach Proponent Main idea/postulate Comments Market Strategy Marketing Capabilities Approach Resource-Advantage Theory Product Differentiation Day (1994,1999), Cool and Dierickx (1989), Aaker (1989), Caves and Ghemawat (1986). Also, Buzzell an